Tomato Varieties
I have attempted to organize the tomatoes I have grown into charts depending on whether the tomato is a paste/oxheart, slicer/beefsteak, salad/cocktail, dwarf, or cherry/grape type tomato. Some tomatoes may fit in multiple charts, for example, a cherry tomato may also fit into the dwarf tomato category. In these cases, I try to include them in both charts. I will continue to add in more tomato varieties as time allows. If you have a favorite tomato variety not listed, please let me know and I will add it to my charts.
In addition to variety, I include whether that tomato is open-pollinated or hybrid. I abbreviate open-pollinated as OP and hybrid as F1. Open-pollinated plants include all tomatoes in which seeds can be saved and will grow true the following year (assuming cross-pollination has not occurred). This includes all heirloom tomatoes. I have included the days to maturity for each tomato variety as well, although these numbers can vary widely depending on environmental factors such as where you live, weather that year, the amount of rain, etc. I also designate whether the tomato plant is determinate (Det), indeterminate (Ind), semi-determinate (Semi-det), or dwarf (can be determinate or indeterminate). Indeterminate plants keep growing and can get very large, even up to 12 feet tall. They will continue to bloom and set fruit up until the first frost. Determinate plants stop growing at a certain height, often 2-4 feet tall and set their fruit around the same time. Many gardeners who can or freeze tomatoes or tomato products like determinate plants because you can harvest large numbers of tomatoes at the same time. Semi-determinate plants are, not surprisingly, in between the other two categories. These plants grow all season long like indeterminate plants but are more compact. They do grow taller than true determinate plants though. ​ I include any disease resistance, if known. Common diseases include fusarium wilt 1 or 2 (FW1 or FW2), verticillium wilt (VW), tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), early blight, and late blight. I also include any other noteworthy information, such as the color of the tomato, the type of foliage (potato-leaf or rugose/wrinkled), any awards the tomato has received such as being an All America Selections (AAS) winner, as well as my personal observations. However, what I notice in my garden can vary widely compared to what you may observe in your garden, it can even vary from year to year. How much rain that falls during a growing season, temperatures, and even diseases observed can vary based on location, weather patterns, etc. Diseases that affect tomatoes in my typically humid summers may not cause problems for gardeners in Arizona. And gardeners in the southwest may have problems with tomatoes not setting fruit in their brutally hot summers that I just do not see in my relatively cool Wisconsin summers that rarely get above 90°F. Taste can also vary not just based on weather patterns but personal preferences as well. I do not like overly sweet tomatoes, I prefer well-balanced sweet, but also slightly acidic type tomatoes. Paste and Oxheart Tomatoes
Paste tomatoes are generally used for sauce because they are less juicy, meaty tomatoes, usually with fewer seeds. They are oblong, pear, plum, hot pepper, sausage, or heart shaped. Many traditional paste tomatoes are less flavorful when eaten fresh but improve when cooked. There are, however, many heirloom paste tomatoes with improved flavor.
0 Cherry and Grape Tomatoes
Dwarf Tomatoes
​Tomato plants are considered “dwarfâ€
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The Basics of Fermenting WineFermentation is anaerobically (without oxygen) breaking down sugars into alcohol or lactic acid. Carbon dioxide gas is often produced as a byproduct. Fermentation by bacteria or yeast is used to make a variety of foods such as yogurt, cheese, sauerkraut, sourdough bread, some hot sauces, kimchi, kombucha, wine, and beer. There are two ways to perform alcoholic fermentation: naturally occurring wild yeast or commercially available yeast that you add to a ferment. I prefer using commercially available yeast as your ferment has less risk of spoilage or off flavors. However, many people enjoy trying wild ferments. When to Pick Your Grapes There are several factors that determine when to pick your grapes: Brix, pH, and TA. Brix is the percent sugar. I try for 24% for my red wine grapes to get a ~14% ABV. The higher the starting sugar, the higher the potential alcohol concentration at the end of fermentation, assuming you ferment to dryness. You generally want at least 18-19 Brix for white wines to end up with 10-11% ABV. pH is the strength of the acid in the grape juice. A pH of 7 is neutral, less than 7 is acidic and higher than 7 is alkaline or basic. White wines are generally more acidic than red wines, with a pH usually between 3.0-3.4. Red wines ideally are between pH 3.3-3.6. If you are using fruits other than wine grapes you may need to significantly alter the Brix and/or pH to achieve an acceptable wine. Total acidity or TA is the amount of acid in a solution, but, as stated above, pH is how strong that acid is. You could have a lot of acid that is not very strong, or you could have relatively small amounts of a stronger acid. TA is measured in grams per liter (g/L), not the pH scale. Wines grown in northern climates tend to have a lower Brix, higher pH (more acidic), and higher TA (more acid in total). As the grapes mature, their sugar concentration increases, and their acid levels decrease. Last year (2023) we picked our grapes early because they were being destroyed by birds and then wasps. We bought bird netting before we realized the wasps were also a problem. Because we picked early, our Brix was low (~18), as was our pH (~3.0), for red wine. We added sugar to achieve a Brix closer to 24. Our TA was also what would be considered high for grapes grown in California (~9 g/L), but this was actually surprisingly low for Marquette grapes. This year (2024) we bought insect netting that kept the majority of birds and wasps off our ripening grapes and so we picked later in the season. Final numbers after crushing the grapes were 22 Brix (the grapes tested at 24 but we only sampled a few grapes, not entire clusters), 3.4 for pH, and 11+ g/L for TA. The TA is too high, but in line with what you generally see for Marquette grapes, but the pH and Brix were better. I again added a little sugar to achieve roughly 24 Brix. I am hoping that by using a yeast that reduces acidity (see discussion below) and following alcoholic fermentation with malolactic fermentation, I can reduce the TA to a more acceptable level. Yeast SelectionWhat yeast you choose depends on many factors including what type of wine, beer, or cider you want to ferment, what alcohol content you are hoping to achieve, what temperatures you will be fermenting at, etc. There are specific yeasts for beer versus wine and even red, white, or fruit wines. EC-1118 is a commonly used yeast because it has high alcohol tolerance (up to 18%), it rarely gets stuck (stops fermenting), gives a neutral flavor, ferments at a large temperature range (45-95°F), and is good for a variety of wine styles even though it is traditionally considered a champagne yeast. It is commonly used for reds, whites, and cider as well. EC-1118 is not a good choice if you want to follow alcoholic fermentation with malolactic fermentation as they are not compatible and high alcohol levels can also inhibit malolactic fermentation. I use Lalvin 71B for my Marquette wine (even though it is traditionally used for white wines) because it is compatible with malolactic fermentation, which is commonly used for red wines, especially acidic grapes like Marquette. Both 71B and malolactic fermentation reduce the overall acidity (TA) of wine. 71B can neutralize up to 40% of malic acid found in juice and malolactic fermentation can neutralize much of the rest, creating a smoother wine. One potential disadvantage of 71B is that its alcohol tolerance is 14%. If you want higher alcohol wine, this is not a good choice. Other options for red wine include Bourgovin RC-212, Premier Rouge, and ICV D254. I have used RC-212 for my elderberry wine with good results. Fruit wines (other than grape) are often fermented with K1-V1116 but it can also be used for white wine. Other traditional white wine yeast includes Premier Blanc, Cote des Blancs, and ICV-D47. Grifo brand grape crusher/de-stemmer (left), wine press we bought used (center), air lock bubbling on the lid of a fermentation bucket (right). Equipment and Supplies You can either buy your equipment and supplies individually or many homebrew shops sell kits with much of the equipment and grape juice, or beer ingredients included. What kind of equipment you need depends on what you want to brew, wine or beer, but they do share much in common. I have only brewed beer from kits (I have never done all-grain brewing) but I have made wines from both kits and whole fruit. Most techniques are similar; however, beer uses grain or grain/malt extracts while wine uses whole fruit or juice. Here I will cover the basics of general wine fermentation as that is what I have the most experience with, but I also plan to post about making wine from our Marquette grapes in particular in the future.
Marquette grapes in the hopper of the crusher/de-stemmer (left), grape juice, skins, and seeds after crushing (center), wine ready to be pressed in a mesh bag (left). Where to Buy Fermentation Equipment, Supplies, and Kits Where to buy fermentation supplies depends on where you are located. I often buy from a local shop, however, it is not a designated brew shop, so their supplies for some products are limited. For more specialized supplies I need to buy online.
How to FermentIf you bought a wine kit your best option is to follow the instructions that came with the kit. Here I will cover the basics of making fruit wine from scratch, either using grapes or other fruits.
References and Resources
What Apples Should You Use?Sweet cider is, not surprisingly, made with sweeter apples. Chances are if you like to eat the apple fresh you will probably also like it as cider. Feel free to refer to my blog post on apple varieties to see what varieties are generally used for particular purposes but, almost any apple can be made into cider. Some advice I have seen multiple times is that the best apple cider is made from free apples; basically use what you can get. The best hard cider is made with a combination of tannic/bitter, sweet (low tannin/low acid), and sharp/acidic apples. Sweet cider can be made with sweet or sweet/sharp apples, but tannic apples are generally not used. Last year we made a Honeycrisp cider, this year we made a Honeycrisp and a McIntosh cider. Both were tasty but the Honeycrisp was sweeter and the McIntosh, while sweet was also a little more acidic. McIntosh apples (left) and Honeycrisp (right) that we turned into fresh apple cider. Cleaning Your Apples and EquipmentI scrub my apples with a vegetable brush with some distilled white vinegar in the water. I also pick out any bad apples. You can cut out minor holes or spots, but you do not want apples that have started to rot as it will give an off flavor to your cider, and it is also unsafe. It is also not recommended to use apples that have dropped from the tree as there will be a higher bacterial load on drops. We clean all our equipment well and spray it down with potassium metabisulfite (which we use for our winemaking). For fresh cider we rinse off the metabisulfite but for hard cider, it does not need to be rinsed (unless you are trying to do a wild yeast ferment) as you generally add potassium metabisulfite anyway before pitching your yeast the next day. You can also use StarSan or OneStep sanitizer which is also used in brewing beer. If you do not have these sanitizers, you can just scrub your equipment well with dish soap and rinse really well with hot water. Apples ground with a food processor (left) are ground more finely than with a manual apple grinder (right) from Roots and Harvest (LEM). How to Make Cider Ideally, to make apple cider you will have an apple grinder and a fruit press, however, you can make it without those pieces of equipment. Last year we rough chopped our apples and then used a food processor to grind up the apples. The advantage of this method is that I think it created more juice since the apples were ground up pretty well, the big disadvantage is that it took a long time and lots of chopping. This year we bought a Roots and Harvest (sold by LEM) apple/fruit grinder. The advantage of this grinder is that it was faster, but the disadvantages are that I think we got less juice out and it wasn't as easy to turn the handle as I expected. Large apples still had to be cut in half, but it was much less work than chopping them for the food processor. Getting the grinder moving first and putting in only a small number of apple halves at a time did make it easier to turn. However, if you are planning on processing a large volume of apples, an electric grinder, while expensive, would be much faster and easier. Alternatives I have read about for grinding apples are pre-freezing them which breaks the cell walls releasing the juice when they thaw or using a new kitchen garbage disposal or woodchipper. Since garbage disposals and woodchippers are not designed to be food-safe, I prefer using equipment that is specially designed for food. Pre-freezing apples requires free freezer space, which is not always available. This year we tried freezing small apples whole and cutting the large apples in half before freezing them. We use food safe 5 gallon bags that we use to freeze our elderberries and grapes before processing them so we used them for the apple halves as well. We have not yet ground and pressed these apples (thaw them first!) but I will update this post when we do. After you grind all your apples put them in a mesh bag. You can hang your bag, let the juice drip out, and then manually squeeze out extra juice at the end or use a press. Since we make wine, we already had a grape press, so we put the ground apples in the mesh bag, pressed them, and collected all the juice as it ran out of the press. A Roots and Harvest (LEM) apple/fruit grinder (left), ground apples in a mesh bag placed in the fruit press (center), blocks of wood on the top of the press to allow pressing of smaller batches (right). Pasteurizing your Cider After pressing you may want to pasteurize your cider. To legally sell fresh cider in the United States it must be pasteurized. If you are making cider for your consumption, you do not have to pasteurize it. If the very young, very old, or anyone immunocompromised will drink the cider I highly recommend pasteurizing it. Unpasteurized cider can be contaminated with E. coli or other bacteria. To pasteurize cider, heat it to 160-185°F for at least 1 minute. If you will store it in glass jars, be careful pouring hot cider into them as thermal shock can cause the jars to break. I recommend having clean, warmed jars ready to pour the hot cider into so there is less chance of thermal shock. Pasteurized cider can be stored in a refrigerator for up to one week. If you choose not to pasteurize you should drink it within a day or two. Long-Term Storage of CiderTo store cider long-term, I recommend freezing it. You may also can cider for long-term storage, but heating cider to can it turns cider into apple juice (at least in regards to flavor). References and Resources
Pepper Varieties
I have compiled a list of pepper varieties I have grown or have seeds but have yet to plant. I split the varieties into two charts: hot and sweet peppers. I will add to these charts as I try new varieties and will also try to add the most common varieties whether I have grown them or not. In general, I do not grow the super-hot varieties, although that may change in the future.
In the chart, OP means open-pollinated or seeds that can be saved and will grow true (assuming no cross-pollination). F1 refers to hybrid seeds, which are crosses from two different varieties. These seeds are generally not saved because they are not likely to grow like the parent varieties, even if cross-pollination does not occur. As you can see from the chart I highly prefer open-pollinated varieties as I like to save seed (although I get a lot of cross-pollination because I do not separate my plants). Unless otherwise noted, most varieties are Capsicum annuum, the most common pepper species. Please check out my blog post on the commonly cultivated pepper species for more information on each species. Days to maturity are estimates and may vary depending on where the plants are grown and the weather during that growing season. Days to maturity are the number of days after transplant, add another 8-12 weeks (or more for super hots) if starting from seed. Scoville numbers are in Scoville heat units (SHU) and can vary quite a bit from plant to plant or even from different peppers on the same plant. Environmental conditions such as temperature, water, soil, humidity, sun exposure, and pests can all alter the heat level. The stage of ripening can also change the heat level. Peppers that have the NuMex designation are those that have been created or improved upon by New Mexico State University Chile Pepper Institute. TMV is tobacco mosaic virus a plant virus that also infects peppers and tomatoes. AAS is an All-America Selections winner. AAS is a non-profit organization that tests how well plants grow. I compiled these lists from various seed companies and other resources listed at the end of this post. Hot Pepper Varieties
Sweet Pepper Varieties
References and Resources
Bringing Nature Home by Douglas W. TallamyThe book Bringing Nature Home: How You Can Sustain Wildlife with Native Plants by Douglas W. Tallamy is a great introduction to why native plants matter and what you can do to help increase native biodiversity. Below I discuss some of the take-aways from his book. Why Should We Care about Native Plants? Plants are a key food for many animal and insect species. You may think that the type of plant does not matter but it is becoming increasingly clear that many bees, butterflies, and other insects can feed only on certain plants (see my post on the endangered Karner Blue Butterfly), generally, the plants they evolved with, which are the native plants in that region. These types of insects are called specialists. Furthermore, many birds depend on the seeds of native plants as a food source and insects are also a key food for birds. You cannot discuss planting natives without bringing up invasive and non-native plants. Many invasive plants, trees, and shrubs were initially planted as ornamental plants, but occasionally they grow aggressively and outcompete native plants. Therefore, removing invasive species often goes along with planting native ones. You do not need to remove every non-native species in your garden (although feel free to if you want), many non-natives do not spread aggressively or harm the environment. Native Plantings Look Messy Many native plant gardens are meant to mimic the natural environment and unfortunately, many people find these gardens messy and unkempt. However, you can landscape native plant gardens just like landscaped ornamentals. Mowing paths with sharp edges through your native garden can impact on how your garden is perceived. However, native gardens do best with dense plantings (less mulched areas) to provide cover for insects and other wildlife. How to Plant More Natives? Many homeowners start by removing invasive or non-native species on their property and then replace them with similar native plants. I have used this technique on my property, although we have 75 acres covered in glossy buckthorn, so this will be a lifetime commitment. Another method recommended by Doug Tallamy is when a non-native plant dies, replace it with a native one. If you want to make a difference more quickly you can carve out a part of your lawn, kill the grass, and replace it with a native flower garden. Alternatively, you can leave your non-native plants (assuming they are not invasive) and add more native trees and shrubs to your lawn and landscaping, space permitting. What Natives Should You Plant? What you should plant depends on many factors, such as sun, soil type, moisture, etc. Many native plant nurseries have filters that allow you to focus on plants native to your area that fit your specific requirements. The other option is to focus on keystone species. Doug Tallamy gives a list based on the current, but incomplete, research of what native plants host the most herbivorous insects. The idea is that the more species that can live on that plant the more diversity you are supporting by planting that species and the more birds are also helped by providing food sources in the form of insects. His book focuses on plants native to the Eastern United States because that is where he lives, this information is much less complete for other areas. However, he concluded that oaks provide the most support for insects, as many as 534 species. Following oaks are willows, cherry/plum (Prunus), birch, poplar/cottonwood, crabapple, blueberry/cranberry (Vaccinium), box elder maple, elm, pine, hickory, hawthorn, alder, spruce, ash, basswood/linden, filbert/hazelnut, walnut/butternut, beech, and last chestnut, which supports 125 species. What Else Can You Do?Light pollution is a real problem. Moths are drawn to lights at night and will not leave until the light turns off, causing them to die of exhaustion or being burned by lights. Due to light pollution, some moths, such as the royal walnut moth, can no longer be found in New England. Leaving unnecessary lights on at night may also affect fireflies which appear to be declining. Using motion-activated lights that shut off when motion is no longer detected is better than leaving lights shining all night. Bonus, you may also be able to see the stars! ConclusionIf you wish to learn more there are other great books by Douglas W. Tallamy including Nature's Best Hope: A New Approach to Conservation That Starts in Your Yard and The Nature of Oaks: The Rich Ecology of Our Most Essential Native Trees.
Apple Varieties
I compiled a list of apple varieties and some of their relevant characteristics. Our apples have just started to produce in the last couple of years and I always have to look up when they are supposed to be harvested, what they are best used for, and how long they will store. I separated the varieties into three charts, one for cider apples, one for crab apples, and one for fresh eating and cooking apples. Some apples fit into multiple charts, so I put them in the best one. Because I live in zone 4, I only focus on zone 4 and colder apple varieties but when various resources disagree, I will include those that appear to be borderline 4/5. Also, the rootstock that the apple is grafted onto can make a difference in cold hardiness. Even though these apples are cold-hardy they can be grown in warmer zones, generally up to zone 9. The recommended harvest time will also vary depending on your zone and the growing season that year. These charts will give you a general idea but once your trees start producing it is best to keep records of when the apples ripen each year. If you have a favorite apple, hardy to at least zone 4, and it is not on my list, please let me know and I will add it!
Cider Apple Varieties
Cider apples are unique in that many are not good for fresh eating. Some have earned the nickname “spittersâ€
Cultivated Pepper SpeciesThe Solanaceae or nightshade family includes many plants commonly grown in home gardens. Some plants are toxic, but many are grown for food including peppers, tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplant. Peppers belong to the Capsicum genus and tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplant belong to the Solanum genus. There are many species in the Capsicum genus but only 5-6 are generally cultivated in the United States, including C. annuum, C. baccatum C. chinense, C. frutescens, C. glabruisculum, and C. pubescens (1, 2). The majority of, and most familiar, peppers grown in the United States are C. annuum. Please refer to my blog post on pepper varieties for more information about various pepper cultivars. From left to right, Topik cherry peppers, early jalapeno, and Boldog Hungarian spice paprika peppers, all beloning to the C. annuum species. C. annuumThe C. annuum species includes some of the most common pepper varieties in the United States including bell peppers, jalapeno, poblano, serrano, cayenne, Anaheim/Hatch, Thai chili, and paprika peppers. These peppers originated in South America. Some of my favorite C. annuum peppers that may be less well known include Jimmy Nardello, a sweet Italian frying pepper that pairs well with Italian sausage, shishito, a Japanese variety best served blistered, and fish peppers, not just for their beautiful striped colors, their use in tasty fish stews, but also for their history in the African American community (3). From left to right, a chocolate beauty bell pepper, shishito peppers, and a violet sparkle sweet pepper, all belonging to the C. annuum species. C. baccatumSome of the C. baccatum varieties include the Aji peppers such as lemon drop aji and aji Amarillo, many of which are associated with Peru. This species also includes the bishop’s crown, Brazilian starfish, sugar rush peach, Nepalese Bell (aka Nepali), and sweet piquanté (Peppadew brand name) peppers. These peppers originated in South and Central America and can include interesting shapes. Many have a citrus flavor. I am growing both the lemon drop aji and the Nepalese bell peppers for the first time this year and both plants are significantly larger, close to 4 feet tall, than the C. annuum species. I have grown Brazilian starfish in the past and all three are slow to ripen compared to C. annuum. The first year growing the Brazilian starfish I did not get a single ripe pepper before frost (I am in zone 4) so I grew them in a pot the second year to bring them in under lights if needed. From left to right, ripe lemom drop aji peppers, a lemon drop aji bush much bigger than C. annuum pepper plants to its left, and a Nepalese bell pepper, all C. bacatuum species. C. chinenseThe most well-known C. chinense varieties are the habanero types, including scotch bonnet, ghost peppers, 7 pot peppers, and Pepper X, the hottest pepper in the world. These peppers originated in South and Central America, not China as the name would suggest. Many of these peppers tend to have citrus or floral notes and wrinkled skin. Although these peppers are very popular, particularly for hot sauces, I have yet to grow these, because I prefer mild to medium spicy peppers. C. frutescensC. frutescens species include the Tabasco pepper, piri-piri (aka peri-peri), and other less well-known varieties many from Asia (including the Philippines, Indonesia, China, and Japan) and some from Africa, although the species originated in South and Central America. Many of these pepper plants are smaller, shrub-like with small, upright facing peppers. C. glabruisculumThe chiltepin pepper, native to Mexico, the southwest United States, and northern South America was formerly classified as a variety of C. annuum but has now been given its own species, C. glabrisculum. This pepper is tiny and very hot (usually between 50,000-100,000 but depending on the growing season may reach 250,000 Scoville Heat Units). I grew these mostly as a decorative pepper but also dried the ripe peppers to use as hot pepper flakes. C. pubescens The C. pubescens species originated in Bolivia and Peru and is probably the least well-known cultivated pepper variety. The more well-known varieties include the rocoto/locoto pepper and manzano/manzana pepper. These are small, apple-shaped peppers, similar to a small bell pepper but can have a decent amount of heat ranging from 30,000-100,000 SHU. These peppers are unique from the other cultivated species in that their flowers are purple instead of white for most other peppers, their foliage is hairy, their seeds are black, and they are more cold-tolerant. Poblano peppers (left) and end of season green peppers (center and right), all C. annuum species. Our short growing season in zone 4 means we ususally end up with lots of green peppers at the end of the season. References and Resources
History of No-Mow May The No-Mow May movement was started by a non-profit organization, Plantlife (1), based out of Great Britain, in 2019. The movement was popularized in the United States with help from the city of Appleton, Wisconsin (a couple of hours from where I live in Central Wisconsin) and Lawrence University, also in Appleton (2). Appleton and Lawrence are associated with an initiative of the Xerces Society, Bee City, and Bee Campus (3). The Xerxes Society is a nonprofit organization focused on saving insect habitats and thereby the insects themselves. The first No-Mow May campaign began in Appleton and the surrounding Fox Cities area in 2020. Due to its catchy name and, I think, many people’s desire to make a difference in the environment, the movement quickly caught on. The point of No-Mow May is, logically, to not mow your yard in May (in more southern locations No-Mow April makes more sense) to increase the number of flowers for bees to forage, particularly early in the spring when food is limited. Does No-Mow May Make a Difference? The short answer is, it depends. If you have a perfectly manicured lawn with no flowers (what many people consider weeds in lawns) then allowing your grass to grow tall is not helpful (4). If on the other hand, you have many different flowering plants (especially natives) growing in your lawn, it could make a difference. However, what flowers you have growing in your lawn is what matters. Many lawns that are not treated with herbicides tend to grow dandelions and Creeping Charlie. While some bees will visit these flowers, they are not the best source of nutrition for bees. Creeping Charlie is invasive in many states and it is not a reliable source of nectar for bees (5). Dandelion pollen has a low protein content (only 15%), which is not sufficient nutrition for bees (6). Ideally, you would plant native flowers in your lawn, in my area violets (Viola sororia), Self-heal (Prunella vulgaris) and Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) do well. Native plants also have an advantage in that they attract native bees (7) (honeybees are not native to the United States). Dutch white clover (Trifolium repens) is a good bee food since it has high protein content in the pollen and high sugar content in the nectar and does great in lawns, although Dutch white clover is not native (7). Creeping thyme (Thymus praecox) is also often included in lawn bee mixes, although it is also not native, because it is low-growing and a good source of nectar (7). For me, the best part about No-Mow May is that it is a gateway for many people to learn about why all insects are important (bird food!), not just bees, and how to add and improve insect habitat on their own properties (2). Slow-Mow SummerSlow-Mow Summer is an alternative to No-Mow May. Similar movements are called Slow-Mow Spring, Low-Mow Spring, and Low-Mow Summer. These movements are closer to the ideal of helping native insects for a longer time than just one month. If you do decide to plant native flowers for bees to forage, not mowing only one month out of the year does not help as much as it could. Ideally, you would mow less often and mow higher (about 4”), allowing your native (or partially native) ground cover a chance to flower between mowings (8-10). Dutch white clover (left), while not native is a good food for bees. Purple self-heal (Prunella) flowers and yarrow (ferny-type plant) are both native flowers that adapt well to lawns. Why do Lawns Matter?It is estimated that up to 40 million acres of land in the United States have been converted into lawns (11). Most lawns are sterile, providing little food for herbivorous insects, which feed the birds, especially baby birds. If rural and suburban homeowners are willing to reduce the size of their lawns, switch some of their laws to bee lawns, and increase native flower plantings (see below), this could make a huge difference in increasing biodiversity in the United States (11). An Alternative to Slow-Mow Summer One alternative to mowing less often is to create flower beds full of native flowers. There is nothing wrong with keeping a lawn, it is great for dogs and kids especially. However, decreasing the size of lawns and increasing native plant beds is a great, probably even better idea, than trying to turn turfgrass into a low-growing flowering bee lawn (11). In conjunction with planting native plants is to not clean up your flower beds in the fall (#LeaveTheLeaves) and delay clean-up until late spring. Or at the very least trim your beds and let the dead stalks hang out nearby along with any leaves until spring. Many native insects overwinter in dead plant debris and leaves and many birds feast on dead seed heads all winter. ConclusionWhether you choose to plant a bee lawn, reduce or eliminate pesticide usage, add native plants to your flower beds, reduce the size of your lawn, or whatever combination works for you and your property, the important thing is to make a change and bring awareness to the issue of declining pollinators and insects in general. I have listed many resources below if you are interested in reading further. The University of Minnesota Bee Lab also has a list of companies that sell bee lawn mixes if you wish to change some of your lawn to a bee lawn (12). Alternatively, there are several native plant nurseries, such as Prairie Moon Nursery in Minnesota (13) and Prairie Nursery in Wisconsin (14) that sell native seeds and plants online. References and Resources
Storage Onions and Shallots for Northern ClimatesI compiled a list of onions and shallots that grow well in northern climates and store well for the winter. These are long-day or long-intermediate-day onions. I have included their best-growing latitudes (when known), days to maturity, whether they are open-pollinated or hybrid (F1) varieties, and how well they store under ideal conditions. If you do not know if you are in a long-day onion zone you can check out Johnny's Selected Seed map of long-day, intermediate-day, and short-day latitudes. The zones do overlap and you can also choose day-neutral onions as well. Several yellow onion varieties are compared to Copra. Copra was an F1 hybrid yellow onion that was the gold standard for storage onions. Copra was discontinued but, Patterson F1 is now one of the best, if not the best storage onion available. So, if an onion is compared to Copra, you can expect extremely long storage potential. I did not include any sweet onions in my charts. Due to their high sugar content sweet onions do not store well. In some cases, Walla Walla (90-125 days to maturity), an intermediate-long day variety, can store up to one month but is best eaten fresh. Another alternative is Ailsa Craig OP (110 days, long-day, 38-60° latitude), a large, sweet, Spanish-type yellow onion that stores for up to one month. Pictures of many of the onions I have grown are shown with a tennis ball for size reference. These were some of the biggest onions I grew, please note not all got to these sizes. At the end of this post, I include the seed companies used to compile this list. If you have any other favorite long-day storage onion varieties I missed in this list please let me know and I will update the charts! Also, read my blog post on growing onions if you want more information. Red Onions Ruby Red OP Red Wethersfield OP Red Mountain F1 Red Bull F1 Yellow Onions Patterson F1 Talon F1 New York Early OP Yellow of Parma OP White OnionsShallots Val-Aux-Vents OP Zebrune OP References and Resources
Cucurbita Genus: Squash and Pumpkin SpeciesCucurbitaceae Family The Cucurbitaceae family includes squash, pumpkins, gourds, melons, cucumbers, bitter melons, and luffa. The Cucurbita genus, the focus of this blog post, includes squash, pumpkins, and gourds. Species in the Cucurbita genus include C. argyrosperma, C. ficifolia, C. maxima, C. moschata, and C. pepo. Below I review each species including commonly grown varieties and conclude with a discussion of cross-pollination concerns if you wish to save seed. Cucurbita argyrosperma C. argyrosperma species include the Cushaw-type squash. The most well-known variety in the United States is the Green-Striped Cushaw. Other varieties found in the United States include the Japanese Pie Pumpkin and Orange-Striped Cushaw. This species originated from Mexico and was previously known as C. mixta. Cucurbita ficifolia C. ficifolia is an edible squash, not well known in the United States. It has many common names including fig-leaf gourd, Malabar gourd, Asian pumpkin, and more. It is commonly grown in South America, Mexico, Asia, and Africa. Cucurbita maxima The C. maxima species includes squash varieties well-known in the United States including Boston Marrow, North Georgia Candy Roaster, Hubbard (both blue and golden), Red Kuri, Turk’s Turban, Buttercup, Banana Squash, Jarrahdale Pumpkin, Kabocha, Lakota, Rouge Vif D’Etampes (also known as the Cinderella Pumpkin), Galeux d’Eysines (also known as the Peanut Pumpkin), and Marina Di Chioggia. This species also includes giant pumpkins, some of which can reach well over 2000 pounds! The giant pumpkin varieties are derived from Dill’s Atlantic Giant, developed by Howard Dill, a Canadian pumpkin breeder. Cucurbita moschata ![]() C. moschata is a commonly grown species in the United States and includes the Butternut and Cheese varieties such as Long Island cheese and Musquee de Provence. It also includes Seminole, Black Futsu, and Tromboncino (Zucchino Rampicante) varieties. The tromboncino varieties are unique in that you can eat them when young and tender, like zucchini, or allow them to mature and eat them like winter squash. C. moschata is generally used to make canned pumpkin pie mix in the United States. If you live in an area with squash vine borers, this species also tends to be more resistant than other species since it has a solid, not hollow, stem. Cucurbita pepo ![]() The species C. pepo includes many well-known varieties including winter and summer squash. Winter squash varieties include Acorn, Sweet Dumpling, Delicata, Spaghetti, and pumpkins commonly used for pies or Jack-o’-lanterns. Pumpkins in this species include Connecticut Field, New England Pie, Winter Luxury, Early Giant, Big Max, and Howden. The hulless seed varieties, such as Kakai, are also C. pepo. Summer squash varieties include Cocozelle, Crookneck, Straightneck, Scallop, Patty Pan, Pool Ball, and the many Zucchini varieties. C. pepo also includes most non-edible, small, decorative gourds, including the winged and warted gourds and the small gourd-type pumpkins, such as Jack-be-Little. One exception is the larger gourds such as Birdhouse, Bottle, Dinosaur, and Caveman Club which belong to a different genus, Lagenaria. C. pepo is unfortunately very susceptible to the squash vine borer due to its hollow stems. A classic field pumpkin (left) and decorative, non-edible gourd (right). Both are different varieties of the same C. pepo species. Cross-PollinationYou do not have to worry about cross-pollination in any plant unless you are interested in saving seed (except corn since you eat the seed). Pollination by another variety of the same species will only affect the next generation if you save the seed and plant it the following season. It will not affect the fruit (i.e. tomato) of the plant. If you are interested in saving seed the general rule is that varieties in the same species can cross-pollinate. For example, if you plant acorn squash and a sugar pie pumpkin, they are both C. pepo and likely will cross-pollinate as they are insect-pollinated and have separate male and female flowers. However, it is unlikely that a C. pepo variety, like acorn squash, will cross with a C. maxima variety, such as a Hubbard squash since they are two different species. Squash and pumpkins will also not cross with melons, including cantaloupe and watermelon, or cucumbers, as they are also different species. If you wish to grow multiple varieties of pumpkins and squash from the same species, and you also wish to save seed, you will either need to separate varieties by a half to one mile or net the plants to prevent insect pollination and hand pollinate. References and Resources
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AuthorIn 2016, my family and I moved from the New York City area to small town Wisconsin. Our move, this website and blog (and our previous Etsy store) is the result of our desire over the past several years to simplify our lives, increase our quality of life, reconnect with nature, and enjoy a more self-sufficient life. I grew up as a country kid in central Pennsylvania working on my grandfather's fruit farm and as a corn "de-tassler" at a local seed farm. My background is in biology where my love of nature originated. I am a former research scientist and professor and have now transitioned to a part-time stay-at-home mom, self-employed tutor, and small business owner. Thank you for taking the time to check out my site. Archives
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