 Introduction to Beets Beet (Beta vulgaris) usually refers to the root portion of the crop. Other names for beets are beetroot, garden beet, mangel, or mangelwurzel (fodder beets for animals). The greens are also edible, however, and were the first part of the plant to be eaten along the Mediterranean coasts (sea beets) before the Romans cultivated it for its root. Besides beetroot, other varieties of B. vulgaris include sugar beets and Swiss chard. Beets are biennials, which means they grow during the first year and produce in their second. How to Grow Beets You can plant beets as a spring or fall crop. Beets are reasonably cold-hardy; the roots can tolerate temperatures as low as 12-15°F, but the leaves are more sensitive and may get damaged or die back at temperatures around 28-32°F. You can sow beet seed almost as soon as the ground can be worked in spring, although they will germinate better at warmer temperatures. The soil must be at least 40-45°F for germination, but seeds will germinate much better at 60–85°F. Directly sow or start beets earlier inside or in a cold-frame about 5-6 weeks before the average last hard frost date. Then transplant into an in-ground garden or raised bed. Plant about 3 inches apart. I have always direct-seeded my beets, often using homemade seed tape (see my earlier blog post) to reduce thinning. However, beet seeds often give 2-4 plants per seed, so they still require extensive thinning. You can eat the early seedlings as baby salad greens. For full-sized beets, thin to at least 3" apart. Like most root crops, beets prefer light, nutrient-rich soil and relatively high amounts of water, at least 1 inch per week. Preferably, use a soaker hose or drip tape to water to reduce the chances of fungal diseases on the leaves. Pests and DiseaseSome of the most common pests that affect beets include leafminers, flea beetles, root-knot nematodes, aphids, wireworms, and beet webworms. However, the pests and diseases that affect crops can vary from one geographical location to another. To determine which pests are commonly found in your area, I suggest looking up local resources such as Agricultural Extension publications from your state. I look for information from the University of Wisconsin, the University of Minnesota, or Michigan State University, as these three extension offices publish excellent resources that are local to my area of the Upper Midwest. Leafminers are fly larvae that burrow into the middle of the leaf between the upper and lower layers of epidermis. A leafminer fly lays eggs on the underside of the leaves, which then hatch into larvae, causing damage. If you see thin tracks on your beet leaves, there are larvae inside that are tunneling through the plant tissue. The easiest way to deal with leafminers is to remove and discard (do not compost) affected leaves. Flea beetles are tiny black beetles that jump like fleas. They eat holes in the leaves of plants and are most damaging when plants are young and more susceptible to damage. The best way to deter flea beetles is to cover crops with insect netting, particularly when young. Because beets are a root and leaf crop and do not require pollination, insect netting can be left over the beets for the entire season. Wireworms eat the roots of plants, and in the case of root vegetables, they can be very damaging. Please see my earlier post on wireworms for more information, but briefly, using potatoes as a trap nearby can help keep wireworms under control. Root-knot nematodes are very tiny worms that can damage the roots of plants, including beets. The best way to deal with nematodes is to practice crop rotation. However, many other common crops are also affected by the same type of nematodes, so it is recommended to rotate with crops that are not susceptible, including alfalfa, corn, grains, hay, wheat, or soybeans. Do not plant other types of beans, peas, carrots, or tomatoes before or after beets, as they also have a tendency to build up nematodes. Aphids can also affect beets, but they are usually easy to deal with by spraying them off with water. If they keep coming back, you can try an insecticidal soap to smother them. Beet webworms are the larvae of a moth that form web structures in beet greens and can skeletonize the leaves. These worms, technically caterpillars, can be handpicked or sprayed with an insecticide. Various diseases can also affect beets, including bacterial leaf spot (BLS), downy mildew (DM), powdery mildew (PM), Cercospora leaf spot (CLS), scab, and Rhizoctonia root and crown rot (RRCR). These diseases are worse in rainier or more humid climates. Make sure plants are well-spaced, remove plant debris throughout the growing season, and rotate crops to help reduce disease incidence. There are also many beet varieties (see my earlier blog post for more information) that are disease-resistant, which is useful if you have a disease that is a consistent problem in your area. I consistently have a problem with CLS, which causes target-like circles in the leaves, and I plan to trial some CLS-resistant varieties this year. Harvest and StorageHarvest beets when young and small as baby beets or allow them to mature into full-sized beets. If left too long, beet roots can become fibrous or woody. You can also eat beet greens, similar to Swiss chard, either picked young as baby leaves or full-sized. Store beets with their tops on up to 10 days in a cold refrigerator, about 32°F, but for longer storage of beets, cut off the tops, wash and store up to 6 months at 32°F. Either storage method is improved by high humidity and by growing beet varieties known for their storage potential. See my other blog post on Beet Varieties for more information. UsageBeets are not one of the most popular food crops in America. Their “earthy” flavor puts many people off. If you do not like beets, I suggest trying one of the “golden” varieties (see my blog post on Beet Varieties), which are sweeter and less earthy than many red beets. People commonly eat beets pickled, roasted (my favorite, with other root vegetables), or classically in Russian borscht soup.
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Beet Varieties
Beets (Beta vulgaris), also known as beetroots, are the root portion of the beet plant, although the leaves are also eaten. Other cultivars under Beta vulgaris include sugar beets, mangelwurzel or fodder beets, and Swiss chard, which is basically beet greens without the root swelling. Here, I cover some of the main varieties of beets (not Swiss chard), including whether they are hybrid (F1) or open-pollinated (OP) varieties, their days to maturity, the color of the beetroot, and any other information that may be interesting, including any disease-resistance, when known. If you wish to learn more about how to grow beets, please see my other blog post (coming soon). Days to maturity in the chart usually refer to mature roots, unless otherwise stated. If you prefer baby leaves or baby beets, the number of days is closer to 35-40 days. Disease resistance in the chart is given as abbreviations. The list of abbreviations is listed below:
BLS – Bacterial Leaf Spot CLS - Cercospora Leaf Spot DM – Downy Mildew PM – Powdery Mildew RRCR - Rhizoctonia Root and Crown Rot
References and Resources
Growing EggplantsEggplants (Solanum melongena), also known as aubergines, are in the nightshade family (Solanaceae) along with tomatoes, peppers, and potatoes. The most well-known eggplants have the scientific name of Solanum melongena, although another less common species is S. aethiopicum (also known as S. integrifolium or S. gilo depending on where the eggplant originates). S. aethoiopicum is also called Ethiopian eggplant, bitter tomato, because they often look like a cross between a ripe tomato and an eggplant, or Pumpkin on a Stick, because some varieties look like miniature pumpkins. For more information on eggplant varieties, including their days to maturity, color and shape, origin, and more, please see my previous blog post. Eggplants are used as vegetables, even though they are technically fruits, similar to tomatoes and peppers. The most popular eggplant varieties in the United States are dark purple, bell-shaped fruits that are Italian eggplant cultivars. Elongated purple fruits also exist, usually of Asian descent, coming from Japan, China, Thailand, and India. However small, round eggplants, mini bell-shaped or elongated fruits, and those of various colors, including white, green, striped, and orange, also exist. Growing ConditionsEggplants, like tomatoes and peppers, prefer long, hot summers, although they grow quite well in northern climates by starting seeds early or buying transplants. Some newer hybrids have shorter days to maturity, but most eggplants need 60-90 days after transplanting to fully mature. If you are unfamiliar with starting plants from seed, please see my earlier blog post on “Starting Seeds.” Start seeds 6-10 weeks before transplanting outside, preferably on a heat mat. Seeds germinate at 80-90°F and grow best at 70°F after the seedlings emerge. Harden off the plants by reducing the temperature and exposing them to partial sun and wind. Once fully hardened off, transplant them into a raised bed or in-ground garden. I usually transplant my starts about 2 weeks after my average last frost date, usually the end of May to the beginning of June. If it is still cooler when transplanting, the plants will benefit from a frost cover. This will also keep insects at bay. The cover will need to be removed once the plant blossoms so pollination can occur (unless you are growing a parthenocarpic variety, which does not require pollination to set fruit. Space plants 18-24” inches apart in rows 30-36 inches apart. Because I grow my eggplants in raised beds, I do not use rows and instead plant them about 18” apart, sometimes going as small as 12”. This works okay for me because I keep my soil amended with compost and composted manure, so there are plenty of nutrients for the plants. Eggplants require fertile soil that is well-drained. Similar to other Solanum plants, they do not like wet feet. I always grow my eggplants in raised beds to ensure the best quality soil and proper drainage. If you are going to use chemical fertilizer, make sure it does not contain too much nitrogen, as this will encourage vegetative growth but not fruit set. A fertilizer designed for peppers and tomatoes also works well for eggplants. Many eggplant varieties are prolific enough that staking the plants is helpful. Some varieties are also more compact, so they do well in containers. Most varieties of eggplants do not grow bigger than about 2-3 feet tall and will still do well in containers. Pests and DiseaseEggplants are fairly disease and pest hardy, but flea beetles can be a problem, particularly when the plants are small. Colorado potato beetles also like eggplant, although not as much as potato plants. These bugs are easy to pick off but also check for orange eggs on the underside of the leaves and remove those as well. I have problems with slugs eating the fruit wherever it touches the ground. Staking the plants to keep most of the fruit off the ground is helpful. Lastly, I occasionally have aphid problems. Usually, spraying them off with strong hose water is sufficient to keep them at bay. One year I had such a problem with aphids I eventually pulled the plant because the aphids kept returning whether I sprayed them with water or even insecticidal soap. Eggplants can also be susceptible to diseases, such as Verticillium wilt. Rotating crops as much as possible can help reduce the incidence of disease. Some eggplant varieties are also disease-resistant. Harvest and UsageOnce mature, harvest the eggplant regularly, and the plant will continue to set more fruit. Eggplants are mature when the fruit is glossy, and the flesh yields slightly when pressed. If over-mature, the fruit can become bitter and seedy. If the eggplant has lost its shine, it is overripe. Eggplant is usually cooked, but some varieties can be eaten raw. Eggplants are commonly used in Italian cooking, such as Eggplant parmesan, in Asian cooking, in stir-fries and curries, and in Mediterranean cooking, such as Greek Moussaka. Eggplant generally cannot be canned, although Ball has a recipe for eggplant puttanesca (found in “The All New Ball Book of Canning and Preserving”), which is quite good. You can freeze eggplant after slicing it into 1/3-inch pieces and blanching for approximately four minutes in water containing ½ cup lemon juice per gallon of water. The lemon juice helps prevent the flesh from oxidizing and turning dark-colored. ConclusionAlthough eggplants are not my favorite to eat, I do enjoy eggplant parmesan a few times per year. I always grow at least one Italian-type and one Asian-type each season. Compared to tomatoes, they are much more disease-resistant, are lower maintenance, and take up less space in the garden. References and Resources
Eggplant Varieties
​Eggplants, also known as aubergine, belong to the nightshade family along with peppers, potatoes, and tomatoes. The most common eggplants have the scientific name of Solanum melongena although another less common species is S. aethiopicum (also known as S. integrifolium or S. gilo depending on where the eggplant originates). S. aethoiopicum is also called Ethiopian eggplant, bitter tomato, because they often look like a cross between a ripe tomato and an eggplant, or Pumpkin on a Stick, because some varieties look like miniature pumpkins.
​This post discusses the various eggplant types, which people categorize into two major groups: Asian-type (often Chinese or Japanese in origin) or Italian-type (which can originate in Italy or many other places). Asian eggplants are often long and slender with tender flesh and thin skin. People commonly use these types for stir-fries, curries, and sautéing. Italian eggplants are often bell-shaped and used in heartier Italian dishes such as eggplant parmesan. In the chart below, I list whether the variety is open-pollinated or a hybrid, how many days it takes to produce ripe fruit (starting from transplant date), the color and shape of the eggplant, where it originated or its type, and any other additional notes I find interesting. For information on “How to Grow Eggplants,â€
Leek Varieties
There are a surprisingly large number of different leek varieties. In the chart below, in addition to the variety name, I also list whether they are open-pollinated or an F1 hybrid, the typical harvest period (summer, fall, or winter), disease resistance, if any, and any other information that may be of interest. Please note, whether a leek is a summer, fall, or winter leek, or a leek that will overwinter, very much depends on the climate where you live. I live in Central Wisconsin, so leeks that may overwinter in warmer winter areas are less likely to survive the winter in my area. I attempted to compile a comprehensive list of varieties commonly available from seed suppliers primarily based in the north (these are the suppliers with which I am most familiar). Some varieties may be older ones that can be harder to find. If you have a favorite leek variety that you love that is missing from my list, please let me know, and I will add it. If you wish to explore varieties that include people’s real-world experiences with them, check out “Vegetable Varieties for Gardeners,â€
Growing Leeks Summer leeks growing in my raised beds. IntroductionLeeks, like onions, shallots, garlic, and chives, belong to the Allium genus. The scientific name of leeks is Allium ampeloprasum variety porrum, or sometimes called Allium porrum. Leeks grow with a round stem and flat leaves, but generally do not form a bulb. They taste similar to an onion but are milder. Leeks are white at the bottom, where they are protected from the sun, then turn lighter green until the leaves are darker green to a blue-green color. Leeks have been used since ancient Egyptian times, likely originating in Mesopotamia. The Romans brought leeks to Britain and Western Europe, where they have been cultivated since the early Middle Ages. What Type of Leek Should You Grow?
Once you have decided on whether you want to grow a summer, fall, or winter leek, you need to decide on a variety. Some leeks are short and fat, others are longer and thinner. Some have disease resistance; others have very little. There is a good selection of open-pollinated leek varieties as well as newer hybrid varieties. If you are trying to decide what variety of leek to grow, please see my blog post on “Leek Varieties” where I list the most common leek varieties, what type they are (summer, fall, or winter), days to maturity, hybrid versus open-pollinated, and more. When deciding on a new variety of vegetable to try, I also often consult a citizen science project called "Vegetable Varieties for Gardeners," coordinated by Cornell University, in which average home gardeners can rate and comment on different varieties. Some varieties do not have an entry, but many common varieties have information on how well they grew in different parts of the country and under specific conditions.  Leek and onion seedlings under grow lights. How to Grow LeeksLeeks, like onions, can take 100 to 150 days to mature, although many less cold-hardy summer leeks are ready sooner, in 80-100 days. Leeks can be easily grown from seeds, either by direct seeding or transplanting after seeding in pots; or you can often buy transplants as well. Leeks are easy to grow, but they are heavy feeders and require good-quality soil with a pH between 6.0-7.0 and high in nutrients and organic material. If your soil is poor, you can add compost or composted manure in the spring before planting or in the fall, the year before. If you are starting seeds in pots (see my blog posts on “The Basics of Seed Starting” and “Growing Great Onions” for more information). ), sow 8-12 weeks before the last frost. Thin if necessary and transplant outside after hardening off when they are roughly 8 inches tall and as thick as a pencil. I always have too many plants in my pots and end up transplanting them when they are much smaller than a pencil; they still grow fine. You can also trim them as they grow in pots, so they fit better under the grow lights and use the cut-off parts as you would chives. The roots can also be trimmed somewhat when transplanting them to make them easier to plant. To transplant, I use a dibble (see my previous blog post on "My Favorite Gardening Tools") to make holes about 6 inches deep and plant the leeks deep (only 2-3” need to remain above ground), roughly 6 inches apart. If you wish, plant them in rows 12 inches wide, but I plant them in my raised beds approximately 6 inches apart in all directions with no designated rows. You can also create a furrow, approximately 6 inches deep, if you do not have a dibble. If you do not plant them deep, you can instead hill your leeks with soil or compost a few times as they grow, which helps produce longer, white stalks. It is recommended to fertilize with a well-balanced fertilizer, such as 10-10-10, mid-summer.  I use a dibble tool to plant onions, leeks, and garlic. Leeks have shallow roots, so it is best not to allow the top few inches of soil to get too dry. I prefer to use soaker hoses or drip tape to water, as this keeps the water off the leaves and reduces the chances of fungal diseases. Generally, an inch of rain per week is sufficient, depending on the temperature and your soil composition (sandy soil requires more watering and clay soil, less). Because leeks have shallow roots, you want to be careful when weeding with a hoe or cultivator so that you do not dig too deeply and damage the roots. Mulching, with grass clippings (no herbicides!) or straw between the leeks and between rows, will reduce the amount of weeding you need to do. Pests and DiseaseThe only problems I have had growing leeks (and onions) are onion thrips (Thrips tabaci). These tiny insects are usually a problem in hot, dry summers, but they rarely kill a plant. If you find tiny silver-white spots on your leeks or onions, this is the damage caused by thrips feeding. Another pest problem, which I have not experienced, includes the onion maggot (Hylemya antiqua), which feeds on the roots and stems and can stunt the growth of the leek, causing wilting and yellowing. Various diseases can affect leeks, including botrytis leaf spot, downy mildew, pink root, purple blotch, smudge, and white rot. I have never experienced these diseases, but some leek varieties, particularly F1 hybrids, are resistant. Harvest and StorageYou can harvest leeks as you need them. If you are growing summer leeks, you should harvest any remaining leeks before a hard frost. Leeks will not die back like onions and should remain green until harvest. If my summer leeks start bolting, I usually take that as a sign that I should harvest them all soon after. Winter leeks can be mulched and hilled with soil if you wish to overwinter them or use them during the winter. I generally use leaves and frost cover to mulch and overwinter my leeks. Leeks can be stored for several weeks in a refrigerator (they will continue to grow very slowly, but too much growth reduces quality), ideally in a plastic bag with a damp paper towel around the roots. I like to buy food-safe, 5-gallon brine bags to store my leeks in, as they are generally too long to fit in a standard grocery store bag, even with the tops trimmed. If you have a separate refrigerator that you can keep colder, at ~32°F with high humidity, then the leeks may store for 2-3 months.  Freshly harvested leeks. Preserving LeeksThere are two methods for preserving leeks. The recommended method is to dehydrate, although they can also be frozen with some caveats. Canning is not recommended for two reasons. First, the high heat required for canning will make the leeks mushy. Second, because of the way leeks grow, they can have soil stuck between the layers. This increases the bacterial load, potentially including the bacterium that causes botulism, making them unsafe for canning. Although you can freeze leeks, it is not recommended as they can develop a strong, bitter flavor. I have frozen leeks and have not noticed any bitter taste, but I also use them in soups or sautés that may mask bitter flavors. They do get very mushy once thawed, which can be unappetizing. Therefore, if you have an excess of leeks, it is recommended that you dehydrate them. If you are new to dehydrating, please see my previous blog post. Briefly, leeks are very easy to dehydrate as they do not require blanching (some sources do recommend blanching before freezing or drying). To dehydrate leeks, I wash and remove any dead outer leaves. I cut off the root end and the dark green leaves, leaving the white and light green portion. I like to cut my leeks in half lengthwise to wash out any soil between the layers. I then slice the leek halves into roughly half-inch portions. Dehydrate at ~125° until dry, usually 8-24 hours. Using LeeksUsually, the white to light green portions of the leek are used. The darker green portion, although edible, can be bitter, fibrous, and tough. Some recipes, like the classic cock-a-leekie soup, may have you boil the darker green portions to make the broth. In addition to cock-a-leekie soup, leeks are also traditionally used in potato leek soup, egg dishes, such as omelets and frittatas, braised leeks, pasta dishes, and more. Leeks can also be used as a replacement for onions or shallots in most recipes, although they do tend to break down and cook faster, so they should be added later in most recipes. ConclusionsFor me, leeks are one of the easiest vegetables to grow. They take up little room in a garden and are one of my favorite vegetables to cook. I was always intimidated to start leeks, onions, and shallots from seed, but as long as your seed is new for that year, they are very easy to start. I also love that leeks can be overwintered, providing you with fresh vegetables in early spring. References and Resources
 Fermenting Hard Apple CiderIn the United States, hard cider refers to fermented alcoholic cider, and sweet cider refers to fresh, non-alcoholic cider. In Europe and the United Kingdom, any reference to cider refers to fermented cider, while fresh, sweet cider is called apple juice (if you live/have lived in Europe/UK, please correct me if I am wrong). In the United States, apple juice is cooked and filtered to be clear, while sweet cider is usually unfiltered and not cooked, though in most states it must be pasteurized for food safety reasons if sold commercially. Pasteurization does not significantly change the taste of fresh cider, but makes it safer to drink, particularly for the very young, very old, or immunocompromised individuals. Fresh sweet cider can be made with many different types of apples, many of them sweet and/or acidic. Hard cider is best made from a blend of sweet, acidic, and tannic apples, but to be honest, you should make it with whatever apples or juice you can get your hands on. If you are interested in learning more about what types of apples are good for cider, please visit my blog post on “Apple Varieties for Northern Climates,” which includes charts on cider-specific apple varieties, crab apple varieties, many of which are also good for cider, and apples for fresh eating and cooking, which also includes many varieties used in cider, particularly sweet cider. The first step in making hard cider is to make fresh cider (or buy it), which you can then ferment using either naturally occurring wild yeast or purchased commercial yeast. Please see my previous blog post, “How to Make Sweet Apple Cider,” for information on grinding and pressing apples to make fresh cider. This blog post will start at the fermentation step of the process. If you want more information on fermenting in general, please see my blog post on “The Basics of Fermenting Wine”. Although this post is on wine, most of the topics are relevant for cider as well. Many people prefer to use wild yeast, allowing whatever natural yeasts to colonize the cider and ferment the sugars. I prefer to choose my specific type of yeast, as different varieties can impart different flavors and have different pH, temperature, and alcohol tolerances. I also prefer dry cider (little to no residual sugar), so I want a yeast with high alcohol tolerance to ensure the sugar is completely fermented. If you allow wild yeasts to ferment your cider, you do not need to add yeast, but you may want to add pectic enzyme to help reduce haziness and yeast nutrients to boost fermentation. You can also add tannins if you are using mostly sweet apples. If you use commercially available yeast, you may want to treat the fresh cider with potassium metabisulfite to reduce the chances that wild yeast and bacteria contaminate the ferment. Potassium metabisulfite also reduces oxidation, which helps protect the color and flavor/aroma and reduces the chance of spoilage. Once potassium metabisulfite is added, you must wait at least 24 hours before pitching the commercially purchased yeast. I started fermenting hard cider only a few years ago, but I have tried several different types of yeast in an attempt to find one that we liked the best. I have been limited in the past by the number of apples I was harvesting, but now enough of our trees have matured to the point where we have extra to make small batches of both sweet and hard cider. Yeast SelectionAs mentioned above, many home-brewed ciders are fermented with natural, wild yeasts. As a trained microbiologist, I much prefer to pitch a commercial yeast rather than depend on a wild yeast, which by its nature has more unknowns. Thus far, I have tried several different types of yeast. In 2023, I only had enough cider for a single one-gallon batch, and I used Fermentis SafAle S-04 dry ale yeast, which ferments ideally between 59-68°F and has an alcohol tolerance of 9-11%. This yeast made a drinkable cider, but I could detect a chemical aftertaste. By 2024, I had read that many people prefer to use wine yeast, specifically Champagne-type yeast, so I compared the SafAle S-04 to the very common Champagne wine yeast, Lalvin EC-1118. Unfortunately, the SafAle cider ended up extremely sulfurous during the fermentation. This was likely my fault because I had accidentally added too much yeast nutrients to that batch. However, with enough racking and time, most of the sulfur odor went away. Both ciders turned out well, but I wasn’t completely sold on either. The EC-1118 yeast is a vigorous fermenter, and I felt the cider had less flavor than the SafAle, likely from so much off-gassing of volatile compounds that give the fruity smell and flavor to cider. This year (2025), I tried another wine yeast, Red Star Premier Côte des Blanc, because a brewing supply company did a taste test of ciders brewed with different yeasts and found that Côte des Blanc, which is also their best-selling yeast for cider, was overwhelmingly a favorite. My Côte des Blanc cider is currently clarifying in a carboy, but I hope to bottle it in the next month or two and will provide an update once it is properly carbonated and aged. Testing Your Cider Before FermentationIf you wish to know the sugar level of your cider, you will need either a hydrometer with a test jar or a graduated cylinder. A hydrometer is used to measure the specific gravity before and after fermentation. Specific gravity, also known as relative density, is a measure of how dense a solution is compared to distilled water. For example, the more sugar a solution has, the denser it is compared to water and the higher its specific gravity. The specific gravity of pure water is 1.0. Any solution higher than 1.0 is denser, and any solution less than 1.0 is less dense. Alcohol is less dense than water; therefore, as sugar is fermented into alcohol, the specific gravity of a solution decreases. The specific gravity readings can then be used to determine alcohol concentrations and whether the fermentation has been completed. To test specific gravity, you float the hydrometer in a sample of your juice (pre-fermentation) or hard cider (post-fermentation) and take a reading. More information on how to calculate the alcohol content is given below. You can also use a refractometer instead of a hydrometer to determine the original sugar concentration. We bought a digital refractometer (cheaper manual ones are also available) to measure the Brix (percent sugar) in our wine grapes, so we know when to harvest them. This can be used on fruit juices as well, but it does not give accurate readings once fermentation has begun, since alcohol affects accuracy. The advantage of a refractometer is that you can test much smaller juice samples than you can with a hydrometer. You may also want to adjust sugar or acid levels before fermenting. The sugar levels of my fresh apple ciders are generally between 8-13 Brix, which should give a final alcohol content between 4-7%, respectively, so I do not usually add extra sugar. If you wish to increase the alcohol content of your hard cider, a general rule is to add 1.5 oz of sugar to raise 1 gallon of juice by 1 Brix. Add less sugar than you think, mix well, and then test your specific gravity/Brix again. To measure the sugar level with a hydrometer, put the juice in your graduated cylinder, place the hydrometer in the juice, and read the specific gravity (read the number at the bottom of the meniscus). Most cider should be between 1.030-1.070 for the original gravity (OG) and 1.002 or lower at the end for the final gravity (FG) if it has fermented to completion (a dry cider with no residual sugar). To calculate the alcohol by volume using specific gravities, use the formula ABV = (OG-FG) x 131.25, or use an online calculator. If you prefer sweeter cider, you either have to stop the fermentation before it reaches a 1.002 specific gravity using potassium sorbate or allow it to ferment to dryness and then back-sweeten (covered below). When using a refractometer, the original Brix reading multiplied by 0.55 gives an estimated ABV, assuming the fermentation has completed to dryness. You may also want to test the pH and titratable acidity (TA) of your cider. My ciders are generally between pH 3.1-3.3, which is acidic, and I do not usually change the pH. If you end up with a higher pH (lower acidity), above about 3.5-3.8, you may want to add extra acid. Usually, malic acid is added as malic acid is the primary acid in apples (as opposed to grapes, which have mostly tartaric acid). Too high a pH may occur due to overly ripe apples, as most fruit ripens, the acidity tends to decrease. Keeping the pH lower also helps reduce the chance of spoilage. If you wish to test the TA of your cider, which is different from pH (pH is the strength of the acid in a solution, while TA is the amount of acid present), you can use a TA test kit. I like the ones from Accuvin, which are easy to use, and they make a special TA test kit just for hard ciders, which measures TA as malic acid instead of tartaric acid, as the TA kits for grapes do. The Accuvin test can give a result from 5.4-9.8 g/L malic acid. According to their website, the amount of malic acid desired depends on the style of cider. For example, a European-type cider that is more tannic should be roughly 4.5-6.0 g/L (they also offer a cider/apple/pear TA kit with a range of 3.6-8.0 g/L). A dry style cider should be approximately 6.0-7.6 g/L, and a sweeter cider should be even higher. Once you have calculated the percentage of sugar, pH, and TA and made any necessary changes, you are ready to begin fermentation. Remember, if you added potassium metabisulfite, you must wait at least 24 hours before pitching your yeast. A Basic Hard Cider Recipe
FermentationIf you do not have GoFerm, you can add Fermaid K or Fermaid O yeast nutrient or another generic yeast nutrient instead. Lately, I have been rehydrating my yeast in GoFerm before I pitch it into my juice, but I have had a lot of success in the past just pitching the dry yeast onto the top of the juice. I have also started adding additional yeast nutrients a few days into the fermentation process to give the yeast a boost once a lot of the original nutrients have been used up. I ferment in a plastic, food-safe fermentation bucket with an air lock. I fill the air lock with potassium metabisulfite; others like to use vodka. Make sure to leave a few inches of headspace in the fermentation bucket to keep the cider from bubbling into the airlock. I usually stir the cider once every day while it is vigorously fermenting, to help it off-gas and mix in the yeast, but once fermentation slows, I generally stop stirring (unless you get sulfur compounds, in which case you want to vigorously stir it to off-gas the sulfur). After about 1-2 weeks, I transfer the cider to a glass carboy with an air lock. You can keep a little headspace as long as it is still fermenting. If fermentation appears to have completely stopped, you want to eliminate as much headspace as possible. You can top off with an older batch of bottled cider, a commercially available cider, or use fresh cider or apple juice. Clarifying and BottlingI rack the cider when a significant amount of yeast and debris settles to the bottom of the carboy. If your cider is slow to clarify, you can place it in a cold area like a refrigerator or outdoors (not so cold that it will freeze), which will speed up clarification. Once it is as clear as you want it, you can bottle your cider. I usually bottle 2-3 months after fermentation, but some prefer to age longer, up to one year. I rack the cider into a fermentation bucket and mix in approximately 2/3 cup of table sugar to a 5-gallon batch of cider, and then bottle it. This additional sugar will allow fermentation to occur in the bottle, which will carbonate it. You can find beer priming calculators online if you have an odd-sized batch of cider, which will determine the amount of sugar to add. You can also buy priming sugar drops at brew supply stores, which you add individually to each bottle before bottling. If you decide to back-sweeten your cider, please see below; otherwise, you can skip straight to bottling. You can also choose to oak your cider using cubes, chips, or spirals. I have never tried oaking my cider, but I am currently waiting for an apple wine to clarify and plan to add oak cubes for 3 months when I rack it next for bulk aging. In order to bottle, you will need caps and a bottle capper, or you can use the Grolsch-style bottles, which have replaceable gaskets. I much prefer to bottle with the Grolsch-style bottles as they are easier to close than using a handheld bottle capper. There are floor-style bottle cappers, which may be easier to use than the handheld type, but I have never personally used one. Back-SweeteningIf you wish to back-sweeten your cider, this can get more complicated. You can sweeten your cider to taste and then stabilize the cider with potassium sorbate, which will prevent further fermentation of the additional sugar you added. You do need to stabilize, or you risk your bottles blowing up when fermentation occurs in the bottle. The downside of this strategy is that you cannot carbonate in the bottle because the addition of sorbate will also prevent the subsequent fermentation needed to carbonate. If you really want sweet cider and also want it carbonated, you will need to carbonate with a keg system. If you do not want to invest in a keg system, then you can back-sweeten with artificial sugars that are not fermentable. This way, you can sweeten your cider and still carbonate it in the bottle with the addition of sugar. The downside of this strategy is that artificial sweeteners can give a chemical taste to your cider, and some people are opposed to artificial sweeteners because of potential health effects. ConclusionsI am looking forward to experimenting more with cider, including using tannic cider apples and not just table apples in my cider. Currently, I am waiting for my cider apple trees to mature and start producing fruit. I also would like to experiment with perry (pear cider) and adding other fruit to my apple cider (maybe strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, or peaches?). If you are looking for more resources on how to make cider and other ferments, please see my blog post on the “Top Books on Alcohol Fermentation”. If you have made a hard cider that you love, I would love to hear the recipe. References and Resources
Peach and Nectarine Varieties for Northern Climates
​Peaches and nectarines are native to China but were introduced to Florida by the Spanish in the 1500s. Peaches and nectarines belong to the Prunus genus, the same as plums and apricots. The scientific name (genus and species) of the peach is Prunus persica, while nectarines are derived from a natural mutation in peaches that allows them to grow without the fuzz found on peaches. Nectarines, therefore, have the same scientific genus and species name as peaches. Although peaches and nectarines grow best in warm climates, several peach varieties are suitable for growing in zone 4, where I live. However, I have yet to find a nectarine ideal for growing in zone 4. Most peaches and nectarines are self-pollinating and therefore do not need another nearby tree to produce fruit. There are a few peach varieties that do recommend a pollinator. Because nectarines lack the fuzz that peaches have, they are more susceptible to disease and insect predation. The fuzz acts as a protective barrier for peaches. Therefore, nectarine trees may need more fungicide and insecticide sprays than peach trees.
Special Note: Peaches and nectarines can have yellow or white flesh. It has been found that white-fleshed varieties are lower in acid (higher pH) than the yellow-fleshed varieties and therefore should not be canned due to the increased risk of botulism. See the NCHFP site on canning peaches for more information. Peaches
Nectarines
References and Resources
Apricot Varieties for Northern Climates
​Apricots, like plums and peaches, belong to the Prunus genus; however, they are a different species, Prunus armeniaca. If you are interested in plum-apricot crosses that are more plum-like, please see my post on Plums for Northern Climates. Here, I will list apricots only as Apriums®, which are plum-apricot crosses that are more apricot-like and are better suited to warm climates, usually zone 7 and higher. Apricots are native to China (near the Russian border) and were cultivated there for thousands of years. Apricots likely arrived in the United States via the East and West coasts, and they are now mostly cultivated commercially in California. There are a few varieties that are hardy to zones 3 and 4, but most grow best in zones 5-9.
We have not had the best luck growing apricots in Central Wisconsin (zone 4), perhaps partly because Apricots do not like wet feet or humid conditions, and are prone to fungal diseases, and most of our land is wet, consisting of two ponds and a marsh. We have tried two varieties, Goldcot and Moorpark, and neither survived more than a year. We also struggled to establish peach trees, but now have three varieties that have survived two years or more and have even harvested a few peaches. To be fair to the apricots, one was purchased from a company that did not ship at the correct time, and in general, I found their other trees to be weak and unlikely to thrive. I do plan to try new varieties of Apricots to see if we have better luck, and also plan to plant them on the only hill we have on our land, which should provide better drainage.
References and Resources
Plum jelly made from Toka or Bubblegum plums.
Plum Varieties for Northern Climates
​Plum trees belong to the Prunus genus, as do other common fruits and nuts, including cherries, peaches, and almonds. There are three main types of domesticated plums available in the United States: European plums (Prunus domestica), Asian or Japanese plums (Prunus salicina), and crosses, such as the cherry plum, Asian and cherry plum crosses, plum and apricot (Prunus armeniaca) crosses, or European or Asian plums crossed with the wild American plum. The United States and Canada have native plum trees as well, the American or wild plum (Prunus americana) and the Canada or black plum (Prunus nigra). Both produce small, edible fruit and grow as small trees or large shrubs. Although the native plums are commonly known as American (zones 3-8) or Canada plums, they can both be found in the United States and Canada. There is one domesticated Canada plum available, known as the Bounty Nigra plum. This tree produces small reddish clingstone plums with yellow flesh. This fruit is good for jams, tarts, fresh eating, chutneys, or infusing alcohol.
​Below, I give a brief description of the different types of plum trees and a chart of the most common varieties of each type, all of which are cold-hardy (most will grow in zones 4 or 5, but there are even a few that will grow in zone 3). Most of these plums also grow as far south as zones 8 or 9. Please note that many characteristics on the chart vary depending on the rootstock the tree is grafted onto, the weather conditions that year, or even microclimates within your zone. There are also many other possible pollinators than those listed. Cummins Nursery is a great resource to check other pollination partners, as they have a very comprehensive list for each plum variety. If you have a favorite cold-hardy plum that is not on this list, please send me a message so I can add it. These charts are not comprehensive, as there are over 2,000 varieties of plums; therefore, I chose ones that are commonly available at several different nurseries.
European Plums
European plums (Prunus domestica), as their name suggests, originated in Europe. They can be yellow, blue, or green in color with firm flesh. European plums tend to ripen in late summer. Many European plums are self-fertile but will set more fruit when nearby pollinator trees are present. European plums require another European plum for pollination and will not cross-pollinate with an Asian plum. European plum trees generally grow to about 15 feet tall. European plums tend to be more cold-hardy than Asian plums.
Asian Plums
Asian plums (Prunus salicina) are native to China, Japan, and Korea, and tend to be juicy, as they were selected for use in plum wine and plum sauce, common in Asian cultures. They were introduced into the United States via Japan in the late 1800s, and many were crossed by plant breeder Luther Burbank, including wild American plums (discussed in the “Plum Crossesâ€
Wireworms and Their Control Wireworms collected from potato traps, ready for the chickens. What are Wireworms?Wireworms are the larval form of click beetles (Elateridae family) and look like a thinner version of a mealworm. It is their slender size that gives them the common name of “wireworm.” Click beetles are typically black or brown and are recognized by the distinctive “click” noise they produce when they flip from their backs to their front. Adult click beetles are herbivores, but they rarely cause issues from feeding. Wireworms, however, live in the soil and can cause agricultural damage. Some species can persist in the soil for up to 6 years until they transform into adult beetles. Wireworms are red-orange-brown in color with a hard, shell-like coat. Some wireworm species feed on seeds, cotyledons, seedlings, roots, and the underground stem portion of a plant, and can cause harm or even kill plants, particularly small seedlings. They also bore into and eat potatoes, garlic, beets, carrots, and other root vegetables, making them unpalatable, reducing storage time, and/or causing them to rot. How do You Know you have a Wireworm Problem I began to notice that my young brassica plants would occasionally wilt and die suddenly. When I pulled up the plants, there were almost always one or more wireworms feeding on the roots. Eventually, I started noticing I had garlic plants that were yellow and stunted. Again, when I pulled them up, there were usually wireworms feeding on the bulbs. Wireworms can also reduce seed germination if they feed on the seeds before they can emerge. If you till your garden, you can also keep an eye out for wireworms. We only till once or twice a year, but our ducks have learned to recognize the sound of the tiller, and they follow behind it, gobbling up all the bugs they can find. Another option to determine if you have wireworms is to set traps, generally made with a chunk of potato or a handful of seeds. I use the potato traps and will describe them in more detail below. Wireworm PreventionAdult click beetles like to lay eggs in the soil of weedy or grassy areas in fields and gardens. Once hatched, the larvae burrow further into the soil to feed on seeds, roots, and other organic matter. If you recently turned over sod to create a garden, you will likely have more wireworms. If possible, let the soil rest for a year before planting. Eliminate as many grassy and weedy areas in your garden as possible to reduce the number of eggs these pests lay. Since our garden is part of our fenced-in orchard and vineyard, we have lots of grass for the click beetles to propagate, which may partially explain why we have a wireworm problem. Also, make sure your soil drains well, as wireworms thrive in damp soil (at least in Wisconsin). In other areas that receive less rain, different species are adapted to drier soil. However, my biggest problems with wireworms occur in my raised beds, which, for the most part, drain very well. Last summer, 2024, we received massive amounts of rain, which may explain why I have been trapping so many wireworms this year, even after having trapped hundreds of them last year. Update: once again in 2025, we received above-average rainfall in the spring and early summer, and once again, I trapped hundreds of wireworms. Another way to reduce wireworm damage to seeds is to not plant too early. Many people, especially in our short growing season in zone 4 Wisconsin, including myself, often plant as soon as the daytime and nighttime temperatures warm up. However, for seed germination, it is the soil temperature that matters. If the soil is too cold, seeds take longer to germinate and get established, which gives the wireworms more time to find and eat the seeds.  Wireworm potato traps (orange flags) in a raised bed. Wireworm ControlMost plants are less susceptible to wireworm damage once they are larger and out of the seedling stage, so it is best to start wireworm control early in the spring. The exception to this is root crops, which are susceptible throughout the growing season. So, if you do have a wireworm problem, what are your options to control them? Commercial farms sometimes use insecticide drenches to treat the soil. If you do this, you must treat early, before planting. Even though I use pesticides sparingly, when needed (to treat invasive buckthorn and prevent fungal diseases on my fruit trees and grapes), soaking my soil with insecticide before planting is not something I am comfortable with. My go-to method is to use potato traps. I cut potatoes into about 2-inch chunks and then place a wooden skewer (like those used for grilling) into the potato with flagging tape tied around the top of the skewer. I bury these potatoes about 2-4 inches deep into each of my raised beds (~6/bed). Every few days to a week, I check the traps and remove any wireworms that have burrowed into the potato (then I feed them to my chickens). This method is very effective in trapping wireworms, but it is also very labor-intensive since I have so many raised beds (18 right now). I do not even bother trying to put traps into my in-ground garden, as this would increase my labor significantly. Ideally, traps should be placed before you plant. I did not place traps last fall or early enough this spring, and I have already lost many garlic plants to wireworms this year. Interestingly, the wireworms much prefer my “Chesnok Red” garlic over my more robust “Music” garlic, so I will probably only grow “Music” from now on. Another option to control wireworms is to use beneficial nematodes, which kill the wireworm larvae. Nematodes are microscopic roundworms that evolved naturally to kill various insects. Specific species of nematodes have been selected to target specific agricultural insect pests. The advantage of this method is that once they are applied, the nematodes continue to work throughout the growing season and, over time, can dramatically reduce the wireworm load in your garden. The disadvantage for me is that they are relatively expensive. Since I have a huge area that I would ideally treat (my fenced-in garden area, including the orchard and vineyard, is 40,000 square feet), it would cost me roughly $700. If I treat only my raised beds, this is much more affordable at approximately $50, but this leaves many wireworms outside the treated area, including my in-ground garden, which will turn into adults that can move around and lay more eggs. I have treated just my raised beds in the past, which may or may not have been effective (likely due to lack of rain and not enough watering). Another disadvantage of nematodes is that you have to water the area to be treated before you apply them. You then apply the nematodes with water, and then you water the area again after you apply them. Ideally, the area should stay moist for a couple of weeks after you apply them to help the nematodes burrow into the soil more easily. One year, when we tried nematodes, we had a drought year and probably did not keep the area moist enough for them to be effective (watering the garden that year also wore out our well pump, which ended up getting replaced that summer). The last disadvantage for those in northern climates is that the nematodes do not overwinter well, so ideally, you would treat every spring for optimal control. Even with all of these limitations, I am a huge fan of beneficial nematodes IF you have a small garden and can keep it well-watered until they are established. Nematodes are an organic, natural control option for those unwilling to use more traditional chemical methods of control. Although this method is labor-intensive to start, it continues to work all summer long, which will likely save time compared to potato traps. Other ideas that can help reduce wireworm pressure include tilling the soil in the fall (and again in the spring) to expose wireworms to predators such as wild birds (or, in our case, domesticated ducks and chickens). You can also try crop rotation, such as not planting root crops in the same garden bed each year or leaving a garden bed fallow for a year (while still keeping it weeded).  Wireworms burrowed into a potato trap, ready to collect. References and Resources
Pear Varieties for Northern Climates
There are three types of pear trees: European pears, Asian pears, and Perry (pear cider) pears. Most pear trees are not self-pollinating. They usually require two varieties that flower simultaneously for pollination to occur. Asian pears can pollinate European pears and vice versa, assuming they flower simultaneously. There are some self-pollinating pear tree varieties, but they benefit from a pollinator and produce more fruit than if planted alone. Given below is a brief description of the different types of pear trees and a chart of the most common varieties of each type. Many characteristics can vary depending on the rootstock the tree is grafted onto, the weather conditions that year, or even microclimates within your zone. There are often many other possible pollinators than those listed. Cummins Nursery and Keepers Nursery are both great resources to check for pollination partners. If you have a favorite cold-hardy pear that is not on this list, please send me a message so I can add it. These charts are not comprehensive, as there are over 3,000 varieties of pears; therefore, I chose ones that are commonly available at several different nurseries.
European Pears
​European pears are the most common type of pear in the United States. They are native to Europe and Asia and are classically “pear-shapedâ€
How to Grow Parsnips ParsnipsParsnips, Pastinaca sativa, belong to the Apiaceae family of plants, which includes other commonly grown vegetables and herbs such as carrots, celery, anise, coriander, dill, fennel, lovage, parsley, angelica, caraway, cumin, and more. The Pastinaca genus includes 13 other species of plants, but the parsnip is the most well-known. Parsnips resemble white carrots but often grow bigger, although they can get woody if allowed to grow too big. Like carrots, parsnips become sweeter following a few weeks of cold temperatures, and most people prefer them this way. Parsnips are very cold-hardy, and I have harvested parsnips that were overwintered in central Wisconsin, zone 4, that were still delicious. In rare cases, parsnip foliage can cause a rash, sometimes severe, due to its phototoxicity, so it is recommended to wear long sleeves, long pants, and gloves, particularly on sunny days, and wash after any contact with the leaves. Parsnips are biennial, meaning they will set seed in their second year of growth after overwintering for a season. Unless you are saving seeds, you would grow them like an annual or harvest them in early spring of the following year, before they produce seeds. Parsnips are often roasted or steamed and served with butter. They can also be mashed and served like mashed potatoes or mixed with potatoes. My favorite way to eat parsnips is roasted with other root vegetables and served with balsamic vinegar drizzled over them. Parsnips have a sweet, nutty flavor and are higher in fiber and lower in carbohydrates than potatoes. Parsnip VarietiesI have grown “Hollow Crown” parsnips for years, an open-pollinated, heirloom variety. Except for one year when root rot took over, likely caused by a fungus that causes parsnip canker, I have had great success with this variety. In the summer of 2024, we had record-breaking rains, but since I grew my parsnips in raised beds, the water drained well and I had the biggest parsnips I had ever grown, some reaching 4 inches or more across at the top of their root, which honestly made them a little woody. This year I am trying the “Harris Model” parsnip variety, also open-pollinated, in addition to “Hollow Crown”. “White Spear” and “Andover” are two more open-pollinated varieties that are commonly available. Parsnips have mostly performed well for me in the garden, so I have never felt the need to try hybrid varieties but F1 hybrid options include “Albion”, “Dagger”, “Javelin”, “Panorama”, and “Warrior”. “Warrior” has some resistance to canker and “Javelin” has high resistance, so they are good varieties if you consistently have root rot in your parsnips.  "Hollow Crown" variety of parsnip. How to Grow ParsnipsParsnips require a long growing season; many varieties take up to 120 days. However, they store extremely well either in the ground over winter or in the refrigerator. Parsnip seeds can be difficult to germinate, and it is recommended to soak seeds for 24 hours before sowing. Be sure to keep the soil moist until germination occurs, which can take up to 4 weeks. Parsnip seeds are one of the few types of seeds that do not maintain their germination ability for long so it is recommended that you buy new seeds every year. Once germinated, thinning and weeding are recommended but otherwise, they are very low maintenance. Weeding is also minimal once the foliage grows and shades the area. Like carrots, parsnips require loose soil without rocks or hard clumps of soil, as these can cause forking in the roots. They prefer full sun but can tolerate some shade. I prefer to plant my parsnips in a raised bed to provide a deep, loose, fertile soil in which to grow them. Ideally, you should work the soil to a depth of 2 feet, but I generally do not get any deeper than 12 inches. Although you want fertile soil, you do not want too much nitrogen, or the plants will focus on vegetative growth (the tops will grow too much) and not grow very big roots. Although parsnips can tolerate cold weather the seeds will germinate best if the soil is at least 50-60°F. A cheap soil thermometer is very helpful when deciding when to plant spring crops. Plant the seeds about ½ inch deep and keep them moist until germination occurs (this can take a long time, up to a month!). You can also soak the seeds in water overnight or up to 24 hours before planting to increase germination speed. The recommendation is to plant parsnips in rows, 18-24 inches apart but in my raised beds I grow plants in blocks. I thin my parsnips to 2-4 inches apart (clipping them with scissors is preferable to pulling), and if the soil is fertile enough, I get very large roots, even with close spacing and no rows. Reduce watering as you approach harvest to prevent root cracking and splitting. In the summer of 2024, we had massive amounts of rain, and although the roots grew the largest I have ever seen, they also split more than usual. Ideally, harvest after at least a couple of weeks of cold weather for optimal flavor. You can also mulch well to overwinter the roots. If you do overwinter, you will want to harvest early before new growth starts and they go to seed, making the roots woody. References and Resources
Elderberry Wine Finished elderberry wine is more red than traditional grape wine. ElderberriesTwo different species of elderberries are native to the United States. It is the black elderberry (Sambucus nigra), which is edible and used to make wine. Elderberries are large bushes that are easy to grow. If you do not have room to grow elderberries, you can buy them, usually dried. If you would like to learn more about elderberries, please see my previous article. Elderberry WineElderberry wine is one of the few fruit wines that is as good as wine made from grapes. Although I have made wine from other fruits, and they can be great for everyday consumption, most fruits do not make amazing wine. Although this is a fairly straightforward recipe, if you are new to fermenting, I recommend checking out my blog post on “The Basics of Fermenting Wine,” and feel free to message me with any questions. Steam Juicing ElderberriesThe first step in making fruit wine is to break open the fruit to release the juice for fermentation. Softer fruit is relatively easy to crush with a handheld potato masher, wooden spoon, or even a sauerkraut pounder. More firm fruit like apples or Aronia berries or very tiny fruit like elderberries can be difficult to crush. In these cases, I often use a steam juicer to heat the berries, which breaks open the fruit and releases the juice. This also releases the color from the skins into the juice so when you ferment there is no need to worry about punching down the skins to get good color extraction. I also like to cook elderberries to inactivate the residual cyanogenic glycoside in the berries. However, many people do not cook elderberries before fermenting them. Ripe elderberries have fewer toxic compounds than unripe berries, so if you choose not to heat your elderberries make sure you get out as many unripe berries and stem pieces as possible. If you do not want to heat your elderberries but instead ferment them raw, you can freeze-thaw them, which will help break open the berries to release the juice. To steam juice, you add the fruit to the top colander-type compartment. Add water to the bottom of the juicer and start heating the fruit. Once the fruit softens and starts releasing the juice, it will flow into the middle compartment of the juicer and out of the attached tube. I collect the juice in half-gallon jars. Most juicing takes 1-2 hours to complete. Ensure that water remains in the bottom pan the entire time to avoid warping the pan. Stirring or pressing the fruit is not recommended since it can add small amounts of pulp or seeds to the juice, making it cloudy. If I plan to ferment the juice into wine, I do not care about cloudy juice since it will be clarified as it ages. Therefore, I usually stir the pulp or scoop it out, mix the pulp with a little water, and crush it with a potato masher or spoon a second time to release more color and juice. I then add the pulp and water back to the top of the juicer and let the steam extract a little more juice. This will add water to the juice, but I usually add a little water to my fruit wines anyway. The general rule of thumb is 3-5 pounds of fruit per gallon of wine, although there is nothing wrong with using 100% juice, as it will make a more flavorful wine. Once you have extracted as much juice as possible, let the juice cool (I put the jar in cool water in the sink to cool it down faster, being careful not to crack the jar) before starting your fermentation. You can also refrigerate or freeze the juice to ferment later. Elderberries before removing stems (left), elderberries after cleaning (center), and elderberry-Marquette grape juice ready to ferment (right). Making Elderberry Wine In the fall of 2024, we juiced almost 15 pounds of elderberries and collected nearly 2 gallons of juice. We used the juice to make a 3-gallon batch of wine. The starting pH was 4.15 and Brix (percent sugar) was 5.8. I added sugar (~1 gram of sugar per 100 grams of juice will raise the Brix by 1%) to get a final Brix of 23.4 which should give an alcohol content of ~12.8% (multiply the Brix by 0.55 to get a rough alcohol percentage). I also adjusted the pH to 3.51 which is more in line with red wine (pH of 3.3-3.6 is recommended). A lower pH will increase the wine's stability and storage time. The total acidity (TA) measured 6.0 g/L. My recipe is below:
I did not add a Campden tablet since the juice was sterilized from steam juicing, but if you add one, wait 24 hours before pitching your yeast. I used Lalvin Bourgovin RC212 yeast, which works well for me. This yeast is typically used to ferment red wines, has an alcohol tolerance of up to 16%, and ferments at 64°-86°F. Other yeast options include Red Star Premier Rouge (64°-86°F; 14% alcohol tolerance) or Lalvin EC-1118 (50°-86°F; 18% alcohol tolerance). I fermented the juice in a 5-gallon bucket with an airlock. The airlock started bubbling the next day and continued to bubble for about 2 weeks, indicating fermentation was occurring. If you do not see bubbling, it is likely that there is a leak in your lid, if you see bubbles rise to the surface when stirring the wine, fermentation is likely occurring. After a few days, I added Fermaid O nutrient to boost fermentation. When fermentation slowed, I racked the wine into a 3-gallon glass carboy. The pH was 3.45. After racking, I added 1.5 Campden tablets. I racked again a month later. The pH was 3.56, the TA was 8.5 g/L, and the sulfites were low, so I added 2 more Campden tablets. I also added 50 grams of medium toast French oak cubes. The recommendation from the oak cube manufacturer is to oak for 3-4 months. I will rack approximately every three months and bottle after about 1 year. In previous years, my elderberry wine had a floral aroma, similar to elderflower liqueur. This year I changed the fermentation ingredients and once the aging is complete, I hope to compare my 2023 wine with my 2024 wine to see if the changes improved the wine and also see how both batches age over time. In 2023 I used plain pectic enzyme instead of Lallzyme EX, I used a generic yeast nutrient instead of the GoFerm Protect Evolution, and I did not add extra nutrients a few days into the ferment. This was also the first year I used OptiRed and FT Rouge.  Our finished elderberry wine from 2023. ConclusionElderberry wine is one of the best wines I have made. Our 2023 vintage is still young, so I hope it will continue to improve with age. It does benefit to open it about an hour before drinking to let it breathe. I will continue to update this post as I follow both the 2023 and 2024 vintages and future vintages over time. Elderberries Our chickens enjoy hanging out under the elderberry bushes in the summer. These elderberry bushes were planted naturally by wild birds that roost in the spruce trees (not shown) behind the bushes. There are two elderberry species (Sambucus genus) native to the United States, although there are at least 20 species worldwide plus various subspecies. Sambucus racemosa or the red elderberry is found throughout most of the United States and Canada. However, it is absent or rare in many southern states (grows in zones 3-7) from Texas to Florida, extending north into Nebraska in the west and South Carolina in the east (see BONAP map). Sambucus nigra or the black elderberry is found throughout the United States (except for Alaska) and much of Canada (see BONAP map) and grows in zones 3-9. S. nigra is also known as the common elderberry or S. canadensis, and some consider S. canadensis a subspecies of S. nigra. The elderberry is a fast-growing bush that grows 6-12 feet tall and can spread prolifically by seed due to birds eating the fruit. Elderberries prefer moist soil and often grow in edge habitat in full or partial shade. However, most elderberries are adaptable to full sun, and our best-producing black elderberry bush is in full sun but growing at the edge of our pond, so in very moist soil. The red elderberry plant, including stems, roots, leaves, seeds, and berries, is toxic. The berries may be edible when cooked, but I have read conflicting information about their edibility, and most sources agree they should not be eaten. Both red and black elderberries contain cyanogenic glycoside, which is metabolized, once ingested, into hydrogen cyanide. This can cause nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. I suspect, although I have not been able to find a research paper that tested this, that red elderberries may contain higher levels of the cyanogenic glycosides or other toxic compounds, making them inedible. The color of the berries is the easiest way to differentiate the red elderberry from the more commonly eaten black elderberry. When ripe, red elderberries are red and black elderberries are dark purple/black. Where I live in central Wisconsin, zone 4, red elderberries ripen first while black elderberries do not ripen until August/September. Another way to differentiate the two plants is that the red elderberry inflorescence (flower cluster) tends to be more cone-shaped, leading to cone-shaped clusters of berries. The black elderberry inflorescence is flat and round, distinctly different from the red. The black elderberry plant is also toxic, including all green parts, the roots, seeds in the berries, and maybe the berries themselves. The amount of cyanogenic glycoside decreases significantly in the berries as they ripen (Appenteng et al.), so it is important to only eat ripe berries. Although many people report being able to eat the berries raw, it is best practice to cook the berries before consumption, which significantly inactivates the remaining compounds that cause toxicity. Elderberry UsesThe berries from the black elderberry plant are generally used to make syrups, jams, and wine, although canning jelly/jam must be done with caution due to them having a less acidic pH than was previously known. A recent study discovered that the average pH of elderberries is 4.92 with a range of 4.73-5.19, making them not safe for canning as was previously thought. The cutoff for canning low-acid fruits is 4.6, although most recipes are designed to measure significantly lower to account for variation in the ripeness (and hence acidity) of fruit. However, there is one recipe, tested by the University of Wisconsin Extension, which if followed exactly, can be used to make elderberry jelly or jam. Many people believe that black elderberries have medicinal properties. They do have high levels of anthocyanins, like Aronia berries, which are an antioxidant. They may also have anti-microbial, anti-viral, and anti-inflammatory properties, although few well-controlled research studies have been done, and most data is anecdotal.  Elderberries we collected the summer of 2024 to ferment into elderberry wine. One of the most popular uses for elderberries to to make wine. For wine, I have always used cooked berries because I use a steam juicer to easily extract the juice, rather than trying to mash the tiny berries. However, many wine recipes use raw berries, I assume this is safe because the seeds will drop out of solution during fermentation and when you rack the wine you will leave the seeds (the toxic part of the berry) behind. The process of fermentation may also neutralize the toxins. Although I prefer to use cooked berries to eliminate any possibility that the toxic compounds will leach out of the seeds or out of any contaminating stems (the stems that attach to each berry is fern-like and difficult to separate from the berries), I would like to ferment a non-cooked elderberry wine to compare the resulting wines. One disadvantage of cooking is that it can change the taste of the wine and release aromatic compounds that you may want to keep in the wine. That being said, my elderberry wine from cooked juice is delicious (see my blog post on making elderberry wine)! ConclusionWhether you want to make elderberry jam, syrup, or wine, or simply want to plant elderberries to provide food for birds and other native wildlife, I highly recommend planting a few of these native bushes. Although they can grow large for a bush, they can easily be pruned to keep them smaller. Once established, you can even cut them to the ground and they will re-sprout from the base of the trunk. References and Resources
Top Books on Lactic Acid FermentationLactic acid fermentation, also known as lacto-fermentation, is a widely used fermentation technique employed to produce various foods, including sauerkraut, kimchi, cheese, yogurt, kombucha, and others. Lactic acid fermentation primarily utilizes lactic acid bacteria, often wild and not cultured, unlike alcoholic fermentation, which employs yeast. For more information on lactic acid fermentation, please visit my previous blog post. Although you can get tons of information online, in blogs, Facebook groups, and more, I still enjoy having books on certain topics. The following two books are the top two I own on fermentation, although I have several more on my to-buy list that I have heard great things about. 1. The Noma Guide to Fermentation by René Redzepi & David Zilber This is a comprehensive guide to fermentation written by two chefs. René Redzepi is the co-owner of Noma, a Michelin-star restaurant in Copenhagen. David Zilber is the director of the fermentation lab at Noma. They cover common ferments, such as lacto-fermented vegetables, kombucha, and vinegar, as well as less common ferments, including koji (rice or soybeans inoculated with a fungus, Aspergillus oryzae), miso (soybeans with koji), shoyu (soy sauce), and others. In addition to numerous recipes, this book also contains background and historical information about many ferments. This guide does not contain any dairy, meat, or bread ferments. 2. The Art of Fermentation by Sandor Ellix Katz The Art of Fermentation is another comprehensive guide to fermentation by Sandor Katz, a food writer and fermentation expert. This book covers the background and benefits of fermentation, typical lacto-ferments, and necessary equipment, but also alcoholic, milk, bread, and meat fermentation. The author also wrote a popular book, Wild Fermentation, which is on my to-buy list. Top Books on Growing FruitAlthough I am relatively new to growing fruit on my own property (almost 10 years), my grandfather and great-grandfather were fruit farmers in the mountains of north-central Pennsylvania. I did not help maintain the fruit trees and bushes, but I did help pick. From the time I could walk, I would pick raspberries (mostly) and also currants, cherries, apples, and peaches. Every other morning in the summer, my sisters and I would wake up at 6 am to bike to my grandfather's farm to pick fruit. My parents also maintained fruit trees, grapes, raspberries, and blackberries on our own relatively small 4-acre lot. At my first house, in a small lot outside New York City, we planted a few blueberry bushes, but only picked a couple of berries before we moved to central Wisconsin. Since moving, we have planted almost 30 fruit trees (we will go over 30 this spring), blackberries, blueberries, strawberries, raspberries, honeyberries, cranberries, and lingonberries. I guess growing fruit is in my blood, and even though we struggle with pests and diseases, the first apple you bite into each fall makes it all worthwhile. 1. From Vines to Wines: The Complete Guide to Growing Grapes & Making Your Own Wine by Jeff Cox This is a good resource for growing grapes. However, it mostly focuses on the Vitis vinifera varieties, the classic wine varieties that grow in warmer zones (generally 6-9). This book does not cover the unique challenges of northern grape growers (like me in zone 4) when growing Vitis labrusca or hybrid varieties for wine. However, this is still a useful resource as it covers planning, trellising, pruning techniques, pest control, fertilization, and more. 2. The Fruit Gardener’s Bible: A Complete Guide to Growing Fruits and Nuts in the Home Garden by Lewis Hill and Leonard Perry The Fruit Gardener’s Bible is an all-in-one resource for growing many different types of fruits, including strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, blueberries, grapes, apples, pears, peaches, nectarines, apricots, plums, cherries, and nuts. It even includes information about less common fruits such as elderberries, currants, gooseberries, and lingonberries. However, this book does not cover citrus fruits. I probably use this book the most to learn about pruning techniques for each type of fruit, but it also covers planting, fertilizing, pests, and more. Squash, Pumpkin, and Gourd Varieties
​The Cucurbita genus, the focus of this blog post, includes squash, pumpkins, and gourds. Species in the Cucurbita genus include C. argyrosperma, C. ficifolia, C. maxima, C. moschata, and C. pepo. Some gourds, such as the Birdhouse gourds, belong to the Lagenaria siceraria species. These gourds have a tough, almost rectangular seed that differs from typical squash, pumpkin, and gourd species seeds. For more information on species in the Cucurbita genus, please see my previous blog post.
​Here, I list many commonly available varieties of summer squash, winter squash, pumpkins, and gourds, and I hope to add more as I try more varieties. These charts are a reference guide to determine if the varieties are open-pollinated (OP) or hybrid (F1), their days to maturity, the species they belong to, and various notes on the variety that may be of interest. Days to maturity are only approximations. The number of days can change depending on what USDA zone you live in, a particular microclimate, the weather, and other environmental factors. The species each variety belongs to is important if you are planting more than one variety of the same species and wish to save seed. I also differentiated between pumpkins and winter squash. Although this is somewhat arbitrary, I organized the pumpkins into a group including those with the traditional pumpkin shape. While all the winter squash listed are edible, only some pumpkins are edible. Some pumpkins, while technically edible, would not be tasty.
Summer Squash/Zucchini Varieties
Winter Squash Varieties
Pumpkin Varieties
Gourd Varieties
Many gourd seeds come in mixes so specific variety names are not always available but rather the name of the mix.
 If you have good soil, carrots are easy to grow and store well. Gardening to Save MoneyVictory gardens were planted during World War I and World War II by many countries, including the United States, to supplement the food supply during uncertain times. During the COVID pandemic, people again turned to gardening to supplement their food when prices skyrocketed. Gardening also helps boost morale and provides stress relief during worrying times. Vegetable gardening provides exercise to help manage stress, but also gives people something tangible they can do that makes them feel more in control. Given the uncertainty and increasing prices in the United States and the world today, I predict people will again turn to gardening this spring (2025) and next year as well. (Update Aug 2025: as many predicted, food prices increased this summer; produce prices alone increased almost 40% in July of 2025). Some may start a garden for the first time, while others may increase the size of their current garden to save money. But does gardening save you money? It depends. I consider gardening a hobby and do not expect it to pay for itself. Like other hobbies, gardening costs money, but with this hobby, you can get a return on your investment. Although I stick to a budget, I also enjoy trying new seed varieties, so I tend to buy more seeds even when I already have plenty of other varieties I could plant. That being said, I did not always have the budget I do now to buy seeds and other gardening materials, so I’ve had some practice gardening on a budget. How to Garden on a BudgetTomatoes, lettuce, and peppers are prolific and fairly easy to grow. Peppers can be frozen without blanching. Tomatoes are often canned but can be dehydrated or frozen as well. SoilIf you have decently fertile land, the cheapest way to garden is to plant in the ground. Unless you want to hand-dig the soil using a broad fork, you may want to invest in borrowing, renting, or buying a tiller, at least for the first time you turn over the soil. If your area to garden is currently covered by sod, you may want to put down a tarp or plastic sheet to kill the grass for several months to a year before you dig. If you do not have good soil, using a raised bed is the best, but not always the cheapest option. If your soil is terrible, it is likely more cost-effective to build raised beds and fill them with soil than try to repair the ground that could be compacted, too sandy, or have too much clay. For more information on raised beds, see my blog post here. Another option is to rent a community garden plot. If you share that plot with someone, you can split the costs and the labor (but also the food). Even if you use an in-ground garden, you should supplement the soil with compost or other amendments. Start saving your vegetable scraps as soon as possible to start a compost pile. The cheapest option is to compost on the ground, but you can buy a composter if you want it off the ground or in a container. We produce so much compost that we keep it in a large pile on the ground. If you know someone who raises animals, you can likely get manure for free. Ideally, it should be composted for at least 6 months before using it to reduce possible pathogen load. We get free horse manure from a neighbor. Horse manure isn’t the best due to the presence of weed seeds, but it is free. Rabbit, chicken, duck, cow, goat, and sheep manure are all great options. Seeds and PlantsIf you are new to gardening, I would suggest starting small. Buy only the seeds or plants that you think you will use the most. Gardens can quickly become overwhelming, and the cost of seeds or plants can add up. Some seed companies sell mixed gift bags at the end of the season, much cheaper than regular seeds (True Leaf Market and MIgardener). You may also be able to get free seeds from seed swaps, local gardening sites online, or on a local “buy nothing” group. Heirloom seeds tend to be much cheaper than hybrid seeds, but depending on your location, disease-resistant or bolt-resistant hybrid seeds might be worth the extra cost. I have much better luck with hybrid broccoli and cauliflower than I do with open-pollinated, but with peppers and tomatoes, I mostly buy heirlooms. If you are confused about the differences between types of seeds (you aren’t alone!), see my post on Open-Pollinated, Heirloom, Hybrid, and GMO Seeds. One other advantage of heirloom seeds is that you can save seeds from your plants and eliminate having to buy more seeds in the future. This is easiest for self-pollinating plants like tomatoes, peppers, and beans. Even if you do have some crossing between two different varieties, the fruit is still edible. For some plants, it is more difficult to save seed. Squashes tend to cross-pollinate, and other vegetables, like carrots, are biennial and so will not set seed until the following year, which means you have to find a way to overwinter the plant. Most seeds will also last several years or longer in storage (cool and dry is best). A few types of seeds quickly lose germination ability, such as onions/leeks/shallots, parsnips, and spinach, so I buy these new every year. Some vegetables are better planted as seedlings and not as seeds. Most tomatoes, peppers, broccoli, cauliflower, etc., are generally started early indoors and then planted outside when they are bigger. Starting seeds on your own saves you the cost of buying plants, but it does cost money to buy pots, soil, and lights. It also takes quite a bit of time. See my post on The Basics of Seed Starting if you want to learn more. Buying pre-started seedlings has also gotten more expensive. We have Amish greenhouses nearby that have better prices than most traditional greenhouses or big box stores. If your growing season is long enough, you can also delay buying plants until they go on sale near the end of the planting season. Another option is to check Facebook Marketplace. Many people who start seeds sell extra plants that are more affordable than traditional plant nurseries. I usually set up a roadside stand in the spring and give my extra tomato and pepper plants away for free. I will take donations if someone wants to donate, but that isn’t necessary. Winter squash and summer squash are prolific and easy to grow. Winter squash also store well in a cool, but not refrigerated, space. What to GrowIf you want to get the most bang for your buck, I recommend growing vegetables that are easy to grow and prolific. I have great luck growing kale, Swiss chard, cabbage, peppers (bell peppers tend to produce less), tomatoes, beans, summer squash, beets, carrots, and winter squash. Lettuce and mustard greens are also easy to grow as long as it doesn’t get too hot. Some more difficult vegetables, at least for me, are cauliflower and broccoli (they also take up quite a bit of space), turnips/rutabagas, spinach, corn, and Chinese cabbage. Space is also a consideration. If you only have a small area and want to grow winter squash, consider bushy or compact varieties. Maintaining a GardenOnce you have the garden planted, the biggest cost is your labor. Weeding and thinning are time-consuming but necessary. I recommend making seed tapes (see my blog here). This reduces seed waste and the time needed to thin. You can buy seed tapes, but they are more expensive than regular seed. To reduce weeding, I mulch everything. This also reduces the need for water. I use cardboard boxes and wood chips in the aisles to keep weeds down, and shredded (non-glossy) paper and grass clippings (no herbicides) around plants. If you add lots of compost to your garden before planting, you may not need to fertilize much throughout the season since compost releases nutrients slowly. Otherwise, you can buy fertilizer. I tend to fertilize monthly with a balanced fertilizer for my fruiting plants or a nitrogen-based fertilizer for my greens. All-purpose fertilizers are fairly cheap, but if you want organic, this will dramatically increase the cost. Harvesting and PreservingThe best way to get the most out of your garden is to preserve your extra produce. There are multiple options available. The easiest and cheapest way is to freeze your produce. This generally requires a large pot or steamer for blanching (some vegetables like onions and peppers do not need blanching) to maintain the best quality in the freezer. A vacuum sealer is also handy, as is an extra freezer, but these come with extra costs. If you do not have much freezer space and cannot afford a second freezer, then dehydration and canning are good options. Check out my post on Dehydrating Food for more detailed information. Dehydration requires you to purchase a dehydrator; some are expensive, but you can get a decent starter one for about $50. Dehydrating vegetables also generally requires blanching beforehand. Canning is the third option, but the most expensive. You must buy jars, lids, and a large pot or steam canner for high-acid foods or a pressure canner for low-acid foods. Much of this you may be able to buy used (buy lids new, as they cannot be reused except for Tattler and Harvest Guard brands, which can be trickier to use). Do not buy an electric pressure canner or use an Instant Pot for pressure canning. Thus far, no electric pressure canner has passed third-party testing, and they are expensive. A Presto stove-top canner with a weight is a great option if you are just starting, and costs about $80-$90. See my blog post on Safe Home Canning for more information. One last option for preserving food is to plant vegetables that store well. Many winter squash and storage onions will last for months in cool, dry storage. Carrots, parsnips, and cabbage will also store well in a refrigerator or root cellar if you are lucky enough to have one. ConclusionsGardening on a budget is possible, but it may take more planning. Look for sales on gardening tools, fertilizers, potting soil, seeds, etc. Buy the minimum amount to get started and slowly add more over time. In my opinion, spending your money on soil health is the best investment you can make. This will directly affect how much produce you get from your garden plot.  Swiss chard is easy to grow and freezes well. Top Books on PoultryStorey’s Guides are probably the most popular series of books for beginners to learn about caring for animals. Not surprisingly, all my recommendations are either Storey’s Guides or books from authors who also write Storey’s Guides. We raise both layer and meat chickens every year; we have also raised turkeys (one year only, as they are more trouble than chickens, although I wish to try again). We have also recently started raising geese, and we quickly realized that geese are very different from ducks. When I get a good goose book, I will update my recommendations here. 1. Storey’s Guide to Raising Chickens by Gail Damerow This comprehensive guide covers the process of raising chickens, including both egg-laying birds and meat birds. It includes information on breeds, nutrition, and common health concerns. Once we decided to raise chickens in addition to ducks, this was the first chicken book I bought. 2. Storey’s Guide to Raising Ducks by Dave Holderread This book is a great guide on how to raise ducks. Although there are some similarities, caring for ducks differs from raising chickens. Ducks have different nutritional requirements, need access to deeper water than chickens when they eat, and require additional resources. This book highlights everything you need to know before and after getting ducks. Another great resource is the Metzer Farms Hatchery website. Metzer Farms has specialized in waterfowl for decades, and the amount of information available on breeds, nutrition, health issues, and basic care reflects that expertise. 3. Storey’s Guide to Raising Turkeys by Don Schrider Like the Storey’s Guide to Raising Chickens, this is a comprehensive book that provides the basics you need to get started with turkeys. Raising turkeys is different and more challenging than raising chickens, as the poults are more delicate than chicks. We found that turkeys are more curious and tend to get into more trouble. 4. Storey’s Illustrated Guide to Poultry Breeds by Carol Ekarius Aside from the information provided on breeds in this book, it is worth buying for the pictures alone. They are fantastic! Although the book does not cover every breed of bird, it does an excellent job of highlighting the most common breeds of chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys. It also has a section on less common birds such as guinea fowl, ostrich, emu, peafowl, quail, swan, partridge, dove, pigeon, and pheasant. 5. The Chicken Health Handbook: A Complete Guide to Maximizing Flock Health and Dealing with Disease by Gail Damerow The Chicken Health Handbook is a comprehensive guide to health issues you may encounter when raising chickens. It gives more details on nutrition and diseases caused by parasites, worms, protozoa, bacteria, and viruses. Most people who raise chickens do not live near a veterinarian that specializes in birds, and unless a chicken is a pet, many people are not willing to spend money on veterinary care. This book helps you diagnose problems and gives you guidance on how to treat birds on your own.   Top Books on Alcohol Fermentation: Wine and Cider1. From Vines to Wines: The Complete Guide to Growing Grapes & Making Your Own Wine by Jeff Cox In addition to covering information on making wine, this book also covers grape growing. Although this is a great beginner's guide to growing grapes and making wine at home, it mostly focuses on the Vitis vinifera varieties, the classic wine varieties that grow in warmer zones (generally 6-9). It does not cover the particular challenges that northern grape growers have (like me in zone 4) when growing Vitis labrusca or hybrid varieties for wine. 2. Techniques in Home Winemaking: The Comprehensive Guide to Making Château-Style Wines by Daniel Pambianchi This is a great, detailed book on making wine and includes much of the science behind the process. I also like that the author is Canadian and therefore has experience working with grapes in colder climates. He also runs two Facebook pages and has an informative website containing free calculators and guides to help winemakers. If you are new to winemaking, I would recommend starting with another of his books, “The Beginner’s Guide to Making Wine from Juice and Grapes,” which is better for those just starting to make wine. Also, on my “to buy” list is his updated book, “Modern Home Winemaking: A Guide to Making Consistently Great Wines.” 3. The New Cider Maker’s Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide for Craft Producers by Claude Jolicoeur This book is the first I have purchased regarding making hard apple cider. Our apple trees have just started producing in the past two years, and we have started making ciders as we do not have the storage space for bushels of apples. This book includes descriptions of some of the classic cider apple varieties as well as a detailed description of crushing and fermenting the cider. I have several other cider books on my “to buy” list, but this book is a great resource. Chamomile: Roman versus GermanCommon names of plants can be confusing because many plants have multiple common names, and their usage can vary by location. Different plants can also have the same common name. Chamomile is one such name. There are two commonly propagated chamomile species, plus many other wild chamomile species, and although they share a common name, they are not all in the same genus. The two commonly grown/used chamomile species are German chamomile or Matricaria recutita, also known as M. chamomilla, and Roman chamomile or Chamaemelum nobile. Although they share the common name chamomile, they belong to different genera, but share the same family, Asteraceae, or the aster family. If you are allergic to plants related to chamomiles, including daisies, ragweed, chrysanthemums, or marigolds, you may also be allergic to chamomiles. Chamomiles share a similar fragrance and flavor, often described as apple-like, and look like each other as well, although there are differences. German chamomile is probably the most well-known chamomile, commonly found in teas, especially those thought to promote sleep. Wild chamomile, or Pineappleweed (Matricaria discoidea), is native to much of the United States and Canada (BONAP map). Pineappleweed, although edible in salads or teas, is considered a weed by many and generally not cultivated. Both cultivated chamomiles have been used for their potential healing properties since Egyptian times, although most modern studies have not proven a connection. Both chamomiles grow best in full sun to partial shade and tolerate dry soils.  German chamomile from my flower garden steeping in a pot of green tea. German chamomile is native to Europe and perhaps Asia, although it now grows wild throughout much of the United States (BONAP map). It is the taller of the two commonly grown chamomiles, reaching 2-3 feet in height. It has feathery leaves and flowers that resemble daisies. German chamomile is an annual, but it will self-seed prolifically if you allow the flowers to go to seed. Because German chamomile is not a native plant, I try to limit its spread by picking the flowers soon after opening. In addition to being used in teas, German chamomile is also harvested for its essential oil, which is a deep blue color, resulting in another common name of blue chamomile. Roman chamomile, also known as English chamomile, looks similar to German chamomile, but it is shorter, growing up to 12 inches in height, but it usually stays 3-6 inches high. Roman chamomile is a perennial, hardy to zone 3 or 4, often grown as a ground cover, and some believe it has medicinal properties. The flowers are also daisy-like but grow larger than German chamomile flowers and tend to have a stronger fragrance. Roman chamomile is native to Western Europe but can now be found in parts of the United States, particularly the Northeast and California (BONAP map). German chamomile can also be used in teas and for aromatherapy. References and Resources
Top Books on Vegetables and Vegetable Gardening1. All New Square Foot Gardening by Mel Bartholomew This is a classic gardening book. Although I give some plants more room than he suggests, this is a great resource on dense planting and getting more harvest out of a small space. 2. Epic Tomatoes: How to Select & Grow the Best Varieties of All Time by Craig LeHoullier Tomatoes are one of my favorite plants to grow in my garden, so this is one of my favorite gardening books. Epic Tomatoes is a valuable resource from a tomato expert, offering guidance on how to grow tomatoes, save seeds, and even breed your own varieties. I also love the list at the end of the book on his favorite 250 varieties. I have yet to even grow 250 varieties, much less have 250 favorites! My only caveat with this book is not to follow his method of canning tomatoes. He claims he still follows the basics of the Ball Blue Book, but then states he does not bother to remove the tomato skins. Unless otherwise specified (a very, very few canning recipes allow the skins to remain), all tomatoes must have their skins removed before canning. The skins can harbor high levels of bacteria, which can potentially cause your canned goods to go bad or even make you sick. If you do not want the hassle of removing skins, simply freeze your product instead of canning it. See my previous post on safe canning if you wish to learn more. 3. Garden Insects of North America by Whitney Cranshaw and David Shetlar I use this book as a reference guide when I wish to identify an insect or learn more about a specific one. This book contains almost 700 pages of pictures and information on the majority of insects that can affect gardens in North America. I used this book to help me identify a thrips problem in my hydroponic grow system. 4. Growing Great Garlic: The Definitive Guide for Organic Gardeners and Small Farmers by Ron L. Engeland This is one of those books that I feel like I have had forever, at least since I was a teenager (I was a gardening nerd even then). The title says it all: if you want to grow great garlic, read this book. This is a comprehensive guide to growing garlic that will help you determine which varieties to grow, how and when to plant, what to use for fertilizer, and more. 5. How to Grow Vegetables Organically by Jeff Cox & the Editors of Rodale’s Organic Gardening Magazine I use this as a reference guide when I need to look up specific growing requirements, fertilizers, soil types, watering guides, and more for certain vegetables. Although this is an older book, and I wouldn’t mind updating to a newer organic grower’s guide, this book is still full of valuable information on basic gardening. A great all-purpose guide to gardening. 6. Saving Seeds: The Gardener’s Guide to Growing and Storing Vegetable and Flower Seeds by Marc Rogers This is a great starting guide for those interested in saving seeds. It covers everything from easy plants, such as tomatoes and peppers, to difficult-to-save seeds, like squashes and pumpkins, due to cross-pollination. It also covers cleaning, storing, and testing the germination of the seeds you save. 7. The Winter Harvest Handbook: Year-Round Vegetable Production Using Deep-Organic Techniques and Unheated Greenhouses by Eliot Coleman Although this book is still in my to-be-read pile (I hope to get to it this year), Eliot Coleman is well known for his Winter Harvest Handbook and Four-Season Harvest books, which explain how to extend your gardening season. 8. Vegetable Literacy: Cooking and Gardening with Twelve Families from the Edible Plant Kingdom, with over 300 Deliciously Simple Recipes by Deborah Madison This is more of a cookbook than a growing guide, but still full of valuable information. Vegetable Literacy is a large volume containing descriptions of the different edible plant families with beautiful pictures and tasty recipes. If you want to learn more about the plant families you are growing in your garden, this is the book for you. Top Books on Native Plants and the Environment This is a list of my top books regarding native plants and/or the environment. Some of these books I have read in their entirety, others I use as reference books but did not read all the way through, and a couple are still on my "to be read" pile, although I have at least browsed through them. If I have written in more detail about any of these books, I will link to those blog posts for further reading. As I grow my library of native plant books, I will add to this list. 1. Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge, and the Teachings of Plants by Robin Wall Kimmerer 2. Bringing Nature Home: How You Can Sustain Wildlife with Native Plants by Douglas W. Tallamy This book is great for anyone interested in learning more about the benefits of native plants to the environment, particularly regarding feeding insect life, which in turn feeds birds. For more information, including a summary of the book, please see my blog post here. 3. Pollinators of Native Plants: Attract, Observe and Identify Pollinators and Beneficial Insects with Native Plants by Heather Holm 3. Silent Spring by Rachel Carson Although this book was written in 1962, much of the information, particularly its warnings about the overuse of pesticides and their ability to bioaccumulate, is still relevant today. Rachel Carson meticulously collected data on the side effects of DDT, and as a direct result of this book, its use was eventually banned. 5. The Midwestern Native Garden: native alternatives to nonnative flowers and plants by Charlotte Adelman & Bernard L. Schwartz This book is a great reference for those who wish to replace non-native or invasive plants with similar-looking native plants that also have similar growing conditions to their non-native counterparts. 6. The Nature of Oaks: The Rich Ecology of Our Most Essential Native Trees by Douglas W. Tallamy This book follows a year in the life of an oak tree, specifically focused on the insects found on that tree each month of the year. If you are unaware that Doug Tallamy is an entomologist, this book will clarify that. Each chapter, which is a different month, focuses on what insects are present on the tree, their specific adaptations to survive on an oak tree, and why these native insects are important in maintaining a balanced environment. Doug chooses to focus on the oak because it harbors more insects than any other native tree, which is extremely important for maintaining bird populations, which continue to decline each year.  Aronia juice in a half-gallon jar. Aronia WineAronia berries (Aronia melanocarpa) or chokeberries are berries native to the United States. They grow on a bush known for its ornamental value (red/orange leaves in the fall) and its fruit. The berries are bitter and tannic but are considered by many to be healthy due to their very high levels of anthocyanin, an antioxidant. For more information on the berries see my previous blog post on “Aronia Berries.” I have used the berries in limited quantities in smoothies, but wanted to experiment with making 100% Aronia wine. Due to the tannic nature of the berries, I am planning on using the wine to blend with my Marquette wine, which tends to be lower in tannins, to see if blending can improve the wine. In the past, I have also thrown a few berries into my elderberry wine ferments, but I would like to do a more controlled experiment where I blend known amounts of the different wines. If you are new to fermenting, I recommend checking out my blog post on “The Basics of Fermenting Wine,” and feel free to message me with any questions. Steam Juicing Aronia Berries
To steam juice, you add the fruit to the top colander-type compartment. Add water to the bottom of the juicer and start heating the fruit. Once the fruit softens and starts releasing the juice, it will flow into the middle compartment of the juicer and out of the attached tube. I collect the juice in half-gallon jars. Most juicing takes 1-2 hours to complete. Ensure that water remains in the bottom pan the entire time to avoid warping the pan. Stirring or pressing the fruit is not recommended since it can add small amounts of pulp or seeds to the juice, making it less clear. If I plan to ferment the juice into wine, I do not care about cloudy juice since it will be clarified as it ages. Therefore, I usually stir the pulp or scoop it out, mix the pulp with a little water, and crush it with a potato masher or spoon a second time to release more color and juice. I then add the pulp and water back to the top of the juicer and let the steam extract a little more juice. This will add water to the juice, but I usually add a little water to my fruit wines anyway. The general rule of thumb is 3-5 pounds of fruit per gallon of wine, although there is nothing wrong with using 100% juice, and it will make a more flavorful wine. Once you have extracted as much juice as possible, let it cool (I put the jar in cool water in the sink to cool it down faster, being careful not to crack the jar) before starting your fermentation. You can also refrigerate or freeze the juice to ferment later.  Aronia berries in the top compartment of a steam juicer. The steam is just starting to extract the juice. When complete the berries will have lost most of their color. Making Wine from Aronia Juice I used 1 gallon of Aronia juice with a starting pH of 3.13 and Brix (percent sugar) of 9.9. I added sugar to get a final Brix of 22.6, which should give an alcohol content of ~12.4% (multiply the Brix by 0.55 to get a rough alcohol percentage). I tried testing the total acidity (TA), but the results did not seem accurate, most likely from the color intensity of the juice (it is a colorimetric assay). My recipe is below: 1 gallon Aronia juice 1 tsp pectic enzyme 1 tsp yeast nutrient RC-212 yeast I did not add a Campden tablet since the juice was sterilized from steam juicing, but if you add one, wait 24 hours before pitching your yeast. I used Lalvin Bourgovin RC212 yeast, which I have used for elderberry wine with good results. This yeast is typically used to ferment red wines, has an alcohol tolerance of up to 16%, and ferments well at 64-86°F. Other yeast options include Red Star Premier Rouge (64-86°F; 14% alcohol tolerance) or Lalvin EC-1118 (50-86°F; 18% alcohol tolerance). I fermented the juice in a 2-gallon bucket with an airlock. The airlock bubbled for about 2 weeks, indicating fermentation was occurring. If you do not see bubbling, there is likely a leak in your lid. If you see bubbles when stirring the wine, fermentation is likely occurring. When fermentation slowed, I racked the wine into a 1-gallon glass carboy. After racking, I added 1 Campden tablet plus 18 grams of medium toast French oak cubes. The recommendation from the oak cube manufacturer is to oak for 3-4 months.  Aronia juice in a 2-gallon fermentation bucket. After two months, I racked again to remove the lees that had settled to the bottom and added another Campden tablet. The pH was 3.51, which is good for red wine (recommended pH is 3.4-3.6). I tasted the wine at this point, and it was extremely dry/tannic, which, given the taste of the berries, is not surprising. I used our 2023 Marquette wine to top off the Aronia wine to eliminate headspace in the carboy since I do not have a previous vintage of Aronia wine to use. Since I plan to use the Aronia wine to blend into our Marquette wine anyway, I figured this was the best choice of wine to use to top off. Future PlansI plan to rack the Aronia wine and add an additional Campden tablet every 3 months for about a year. Once the lees stop accumulating at the bottom of the carboy, I will cold stabilize for a month or two in the refrigerator or outside (if it is still winter). Next fall, I will do blending tests with the Marquette wine to see if blending improves the Marquette wine, the Aronia wine, or both wines. If blending improves the Marquette wine, I will blend a larger batch and bottle it. I will update this post or write a new one when I have those results. Update: October 2025 I did a bench trial with the Aronia wine and a batch of Marquette from 2023. This Marquette was picked early due to wasp pressure (we have since invested in better insect netting) and therefore was too acidic, making the wine slightly sour. After aging about a year, the Aronia, while still very dry, was not bad to drink even at 100%. After trying ratios of Marquette to Aronia varying from 90%/10% to 50%/50% we decided we liked 75% Marquette and 25% Aronia the best. The blend really helped reduce the sour taste of the Marquette and added dryness and tannins. Overall, it made a subpar Marquette wine significantly better. |
AuthorIn 2016, my family and I moved from the New York City area to small town Wisconsin. Our move, this website and blog (and our previous Etsy store) is the result of our desire over the past several years to simplify our lives, increase our quality of life, reconnect with nature, and enjoy a more self-sufficient life. I grew up as a country kid in central Pennsylvania working on my grandfather's fruit farm and as a corn "de-tassler" at a local seed farm. My background is in biology where my love of nature originated. I am a former research scientist and professor and have now transitioned to a part-time stay-at-home mom, self-employed tutor, and small business owner. Thank you for taking the time to check out my site. Archives
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