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Cherry trees belong to the genus Prunus and include true cherries such as the sweet (P. avium) and sour (P. cerasus) cherries, which are the most common domesticated cherries in the United States. There are also many species of bush cherries, such as the sand cherry (P. pumila) and Nanking cherry (P. tomentosa), and many bird cherries as well.
This blog post will focus on varieties of sweet and sour cherries, although there are some hybrids listed that are crosses of sweet and sour cherries or sour and bush cherries. Sweet cherries are lower in acid and higher in sugar than sour cherries, which are high in acid. Other names for sour cherries are pie cherries or tart cherries. Sweet cherries are firmer and dark red, purple, black, or yellow, while sour cherries are softer, juicier, and usually bright red. Sour cherry trees are often smaller and more cold-hardy than sweet cherry trees. Many sour cherry trees are self-fertile, while sweet cherries often need a pollinator, although you can find self-pollinating sweet cherries. Regardless, even if a tree is self-fertile, another tree nearby with a similar bloom time will increase fruit production.
Sour Cherry Varieties
Sweet Cherry Varieties
References and Resources
1. Cummins Nursery. Cherry Trees. https://www.cumminsnursery.com/
2. Fedco Seeds. Cherries. https://fedcoseeds.com/fruits/cherries 3. Jung Seed. Cherry. https://www.jungseed.com/category/641 4. Raintree Nursery. Pie Cherry Trees. https://raintreenursery.com/collections/pie-cherry-trees/ 5. Raintree Nursery. Sweet Cherry Trees. https://raintreenursery.com/collections/sweet-cherries 6. Stark Bro’s. Cherry Trees. https://www.starkbros.com/products/fruit-trees/cherry-trees?Hardinesszones=3&Hardinesszones=4&Hardinesszones=5 7. Trees of Antiquity. Cherry Trees: prunus avium & prunus cerasus. https://www.treesofantiquity.com/collections/cherry-trees
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If you start a lot of your own seeds, as I do, it may be helpful to make your own seed-starting mix. You can buy small bags or bricks of seed-starting mix, but I have a hard time finding larger bags locally, so I end up buying quite a few small bags each year. Last year, I experimented with making my own seed-starting mix, which worked well enough that I used it again this year. So far, I have again been getting great germination and growth. I calculated a rough price for my mix and compared it to the cost of the pre-made bags. It was about the same or even a little more for the make-your-own mix. However, I think the make-your-own mix is superior because the worm castings or compost add nutrients like nitrogen, but not so much that it burns the seedlings, and the addition of perlite and vermiculite helps with drainage and water retention. However, if you wish to save money, you can use a cheaper compost than worm castings or even skip it entirely, as seedlings do not need much nutrition the first couple of weeks they grow. You can always use a liquid fertilizer when necessary. I also make a large batch at a time, usually enough to get me through the season without having to open a new bag every few days. With seed-starting mixes, you can choose a peat- or coco coir-based mix. Canadian peat moss is more sustainable than most other peat, so I buy that. Some people prefer coco coir, but you need to buy a reputable brand, as some can have high salt levels that need to be rinsed out by either the manufacturer or consumer after purchase. Seed Starting Mix5 gallons (20 quarts) of coco coir or peat moss 8 quarts perlite 8 quarts vermiculite 4 pounds worm castings (mushroom compost or other types of compost would also work here) ¼ cup pelletized lime (if using peat moss, dissolved in water) I based this mix on the bag sizes available at my local gardening store (for example, perlite, vermiculite, and worm castings all come in the amounts listed above). If you can easily access bags of different sizes, you can adjust the recipe or add a little more or less depending on what you can find. I purchase a large bag of peat moss and measure the amount needed using a 5-gallon bucket. So, each compressed bag of peat should make at least three batches of this seed-starting mix. Peat moss is acidic, so lime is added (lime is basic). Lime should not be necessary if you use coco coir instead of peat. I like to dissolve the lime in water before I add it to the other ingredients, so it mixes in more evenly. Altogether, this makes a 6-gallon batch of seed-starting mix, so make sure you have a big enough container to mix it in or cut the recipe down. If you wish to adjust this recipe to make your own potting soil mix for transplanting the seedlings, I recommend increasing the compost and decreasing the peat moss or coco coir by the same amount, so there are more nutrients available for the growing plants. Introduction
​Celery, cutting celery, and celeriac all share the scientific name, Apium graveolens, meaning they are the same species. When most people think of celery, they think of the thicker, rib-containing stalk. Celery also grows thinner stalks around the outside of the plant and lots of leaves, both of which are usually trimmed for sale in grocery stores. Celery has a reputation for being difficult to grow; however, newer hybrid varieties do well even under warm, dry conditions. Please see my earlier post on how to grow celery if you want more information on growing celery in the garden.
​Alternatively, you can grow cutting celery, also known as seasoning celery, which has very skinny ribs with lots of leaves. These are easier to grow than traditional celery and are used dry or fresh to season soups and stews. Celeriac, although genetically the same as regular celery, is not eaten for its ribs or leaves (they can be strongly flavored), but forms a large root that has a mild celery flavor. The root can be puréed, like mashed potatoes, roasted, or used in soups. Celeriac is also a great option as a replacement for potatoes or as a blend, as it has roughly half the carbohydrates and calories that potatoes have. Below I have listed some of the more common varieties of celery and celeriac, including whether they are open-pollinated or hybrid, days to maturity, any disease resistance, and any other notes I think may be of interest. Celery Varieties
Celeriac Varieties
References and Resources
 IntroductionMelons (Cucumis melo) include cantaloupe, also known as muskmelon for its “musky” taste, honeydew, and other less well-known melon types. Cantaloupes usually have orange flesh and a cork-like net on their skin, although some varieties have smooth skin. Honeydew melons usually have green flesh and smooth skin, but you can now find orange-fleshed honeydews. Other types of melons include the French Charentais, Canary, Galia, Crenshaw, and Piel de Sapo. Melon crosses between different types also exist. Although watermelons share a similar name, they are a different species (Citrullus lanatus), and I will not cover them here. For a list of commonly available melon varieties, including their days to maturity, hybrid or open-pollinated status, color, disease resistance, and more, please see my previous blog post. Many consider Charentais or French melons to be the best-tasting, though they are usually smaller, without netting, slower to ripen, and prone to splitting. Charentais melons have a unique gray-green rind that turns yellowish when ripe. Canary melons are more common in Asia and have hard yellow rinds with white or pale green flesh. They taste a bit like a honeydew-cantaloupe cross and are sometimes called a “winter” melon because they take a long time to mature, and their hard rind allows them to store longer than most melons. Galia or tropical melons are a hybrid of cantaloupe and honeydew that originated in Israel. They have a netted rind but no ribbing, with pale green flesh, a tropical flavor, and a banana-like aroma. They are ripe when they develop orange-tinted skin with a musky aroma. Crenshaw melons are oblong with pale-yellow skin. Their flesh is pale orange, sweet, and aromatic. Crenshaw melons are crosses between cantaloupe and casaba melons. Casaba melons have wrinkled skin that is yellow with white or green flesh. The flesh is mildly sweet with hints of cucumber and citrus. Piel de Sapo melons are most commonly found in Spain and have yellow and green mottled skin. They are sweet-tasting and aromatic. How To Grow MelonsMost melons grow best in warm, dry climates with long growing seasons, which can make them challenging to grow in northern climates. The top melon-growing states in the United States are Florida, Georgia, California, Texas, and Arizona, which are far from where I live in central Wisconsin. However, wide varieties of melons do well in cooler climate conditions, and there are also some tips and tricks you can use to increase the success of growing ripe, sweet melons. Melons require high amounts of nitrogen and do well with aged manure or compost. Plant after any danger of frost is gone, when the soil temperature reaches 70°F, and preferably when there are no more nights in the 40s. I can still get occasional nights in the upper 40s in July and August, so I usually plant in the first half of June, regardless. You can use frost covers to help warm up beds or use plastic sheeting around the hills to keep the soil warmer. I have been trying to use less plastic in my garden, so while I do still use frost covers (which can still add plastic to the environment) I avoid plastic for mulching. If you do use frost covers or other row covers, be sure to remove them once the flower buds start opening, or they will not get pollinated. Melons like moist but well-drained soil with a neutral pH of about 7.0. They will not do well with overly sandy soil that dries out too much or with standing water. Stop watering about a week before the melons ripen, as too much water can make their flavor bland. Plant seeds or transplants about 2-3 feet apart in rows 6 feet apart. Some varieties are more compact and can handle rows closer together. I plant my melons in raised beds and so do not incorporate rows, instead I keep them about 2-3 feet apart, but I also like the “Minnesota Midget” variety, which is more compact than many others. Melon SelectionPick melons that have shorter days to maturity and do well in cooler climates with shorter growing seasons. Honeydew, for example, traditionally needs a long, hot, dry growing season, and typically would not grow well in northern climates. But you can now find varieties that have been selected to be easier and faster to grow. To find these varieties, I like seed companies from the north that sell hybrid varieties, such as Johnny’s Selected Seeds, Fedco Seeds, High Mowing Organic Seeds in the northeast, or Territorial Seed Company in the northwest. One of my favorite cantaloupe varieties is “Minnesota Midget”. These melons have a short number of days to maturity, around 60-70 days. Remember that days to maturity are an estimate based on optimal growing conditions. If you have an unusually cool or rainy summer, you may see harvest delayed by a couple of weeks. I try not to grow any melons with over 90 days to maturity, as there just isn’t enough time in my growing season. I usually cannot plant my melons until the first week or two in June, which does not leave enough time for full maturity if I get an early frost in mid-September. It also does not help to plant earlier if your soil has not warmed up or nighttime temperatures are still cool, as the seeds may not germinate or the plants may not thrive. Raised BedsI prefer to grow my melons in raised beds. There are several advantages to raised beds, besides ergonomics. Raised beds warm up faster in the spring, and the soil remains warmer all summer than in-ground gardens. Raised beds also drain better, both of which help grow melons. I like to use soaker hoses in my raised beds to keep the ground evenly moist without getting water on the leaves, which can promote fungal diseases. Start IndoorsI have found that if I start my seeds indoors even two weeks before planting outside (do not start more than 1 month before planting), I get better melon harvests. I get better germination inside with a heating mat than outside in the soil that may not have warmed up enough. Starting indoors also keeps birds and other animals from eating the seeds, and it gives the seedlings 2-4 weeks to grow before being subjected to pest and disease pressure. The key is to grow the seedlings in biodegradable pots to minimize root disturbance when planting outside. The downside to this approach is that you need to harden off your seedlings before planting outside so they get used to the sun and wind. Pests and DiseaseMy biggest problem growing melons, other than my short season, is voles (or other rodents) eating the melons. One solution I plan to try this year is placing the ripening melons on a brick or other surface to get them off the ground. I hate picking a melon and then finding a hole in the bottom. Another pest problem I have had is the striped cucumber beetle eating the leaves, particularly after they first emerge, which can kill young seedlings. I avoid this by starting my seeds indoors, so the plants are larger and better able to tolerate pest damage, or by using row covers when I first plant them out. You can also spray the beetles with an insecticide, but I never spray once my plants are flowering, as this can kill bees and other beneficial pollinators. Another option is to spray with Surround, which is a kaolin clay mix that coats the leaves and reduces insect feeding. This is an organic option, but my biggest hurdle with this spray is that it tends to clog the sprayer. You can also use sticky traps, but I tried this once with my squash and accidentally caught a bird. I will never use sticky traps outside again. The striped cucumber beetle can also spread bacterial wilt, so if you can control the beetles, the disease should not be a problem. The main disease issue I have had is powdery mildew, but I usually find that this is only a problem late in the season and does not usually affect my ability to harvest ripe melons. You can use fungicides, such as sulfur or even milk, but wide varieties of melons have resistance to powdery mildew, so choosing one of them to grow is easier if you do not have your heart set on a specific variety that is susceptible to powdery mildew. Other diseases you may experience include Alternaria blight, Fusarium wilt, Papaya Ringspot Virus, Watermelon Mosaic Virus, and Zucchini Yellow Mosaic Virus. There are many different ways to deal with these diseases. For example, fungal diseases can be prevented (more easily) or treated with fungicides, increase plant spacing to increase airflow, do not water overhead, or plant disease-resistant varieties. Insects or mechanical damage to the plant always spread plant viruses. So if you can prevent striped cucumber beetles (see above), you can prevent viral diseases. Another option is to plant virus-resistant varieties. For a list of disease-resistant melon varieties, please see my earlier blog post. HarvestOnce your melons begin to ripen, you want to check them every day. Melons can quickly move from ripe to overripe. Most melons are harvested when their rinds turn yellowish, and they are at “full slip,” which means a gentle tug causes them to slip from the vine. Some melons, such as Galia, Charentais, Piel de Sapo, and honeydews, are often better if harvested a little before full slip, at “forced slip.” Most melons do not store well and are best if eaten within a few days. References and Resources
Introduction
Melons (Cucumis melo) include cantaloupe (sometimes called muskmelons for their “muskyâ€
 Introduction to Beets Beet (Beta vulgaris) usually refers to the root portion of the crop. Other names for beets are beetroot, garden beet, mangel, or mangelwurzel (fodder beets for animals). The greens are also edible, however, and were the first part of the plant to be eaten along the Mediterranean coasts (sea beets) before the Romans cultivated it for its root. Besides beetroot, other varieties of B. vulgaris include sugar beets and Swiss chard. Beets are biennials, which means they grow during the first year and produce in their second. How to Grow Beets You can plant beets as a spring or fall crop. Beets are reasonably cold-hardy; the roots can tolerate temperatures as low as 12-15°F, but the leaves are more sensitive and may get damaged or die back at temperatures around 28-32°F. You can sow beet seed almost as soon as the ground can be worked in spring, although they will germinate better at warmer temperatures. The soil must be at least 40-45°F for germination, but seeds will germinate much better at 60–85°F. Directly sow or start beets earlier inside or in a cold-frame about 5-6 weeks before the average last hard frost date. Then transplant into an in-ground garden or raised bed. Plant about 3 inches apart. I have always direct-seeded my beets, often using homemade seed tape (see my earlier blog post) to reduce thinning. However, beet seeds often give 2-4 plants per seed, so they still require extensive thinning. You can eat the early seedlings as baby salad greens. For full-sized beets, thin to at least 3" apart. Like most root crops, beets prefer light, nutrient-rich soil and relatively high amounts of water, at least 1 inch per week. Preferably, use a soaker hose or drip tape to water to reduce the chances of fungal diseases on the leaves. Pests and DiseaseSome of the most common pests that affect beets include leafminers, flea beetles, root-knot nematodes, aphids, wireworms, and beet webworms. However, the pests and diseases that affect crops can vary from one geographical location to another. To determine which pests are commonly found in your area, I suggest looking up local resources such as Agricultural Extension publications from your state. I look for information from the University of Wisconsin, the University of Minnesota, or Michigan State University, as these three extension offices publish excellent resources that are local to my area of the Upper Midwest. Leafminers are fly larvae that burrow into the middle of the leaf between the upper and lower layers of epidermis. A leafminer fly lays eggs on the underside of the leaves, which then hatch into larvae, causing damage. If you see thin tracks on your beet leaves, there are larvae inside that are tunneling through the plant tissue. The easiest way to deal with leafminers is to remove and discard (do not compost) affected leaves. Flea beetles are tiny black beetles that jump like fleas. They eat holes in the leaves of plants and are most damaging when plants are young and more susceptible to damage. The best way to deter flea beetles is to cover crops with insect netting, particularly when young. Because beets are a root and leaf crop and do not require pollination, insect netting can be left over the beets for the entire season. Wireworms eat the roots of plants, and in the case of root vegetables, they can be very damaging. Please see my earlier post on wireworms for more information, but briefly, using potatoes as a trap nearby can help keep wireworms under control. Root-knot nematodes are very tiny worms that can damage the roots of plants, including beets. The best way to deal with nematodes is to practice crop rotation. However, many other common crops are also affected by the same type of nematodes, so it is recommended to rotate with crops that are not susceptible, including alfalfa, corn, grains, hay, wheat, or soybeans. Do not plant other types of beans, peas, carrots, or tomatoes before or after beets, as they also have a tendency to build up nematodes. Aphids can also affect beets, but they are usually easy to deal with by spraying them off with water. If they keep coming back, you can try an insecticidal soap to smother them. Beet webworms are the larvae of a moth that form web structures in beet greens and can skeletonize the leaves. These worms, technically caterpillars, can be handpicked or sprayed with an insecticide. Various diseases can also affect beets, including bacterial leaf spot (BLS), downy mildew (DM), powdery mildew (PM), Cercospora leaf spot (CLS), scab, and Rhizoctonia root and crown rot (RRCR). These diseases are worse in rainier or more humid climates. Make sure plants are well-spaced, remove plant debris throughout the growing season, and rotate crops to help reduce disease incidence. There are also many beet varieties (see my earlier blog post for more information) that are disease-resistant, which is useful if you have a disease that is a consistent problem in your area. I consistently have a problem with CLS, which causes target-like circles in the leaves, and I plan to trial some CLS-resistant varieties this year. Harvest and StorageHarvest beets when young and small as baby beets or allow them to mature into full-sized beets. If left too long, beet roots can become fibrous or woody. You can also eat beet greens, similar to Swiss chard, either picked young as baby leaves or full-sized. Store beets with their tops on up to 10 days in a cold refrigerator, about 32°F, but for longer storage of beets, cut off the tops, wash and store up to 6 months at 32°F. Either storage method is improved by high humidity and by growing beet varieties known for their storage potential. See my other blog post on Beet Varieties for more information. UsageBeets are not one of the most popular food crops in America. Their “earthy” flavor puts many people off. If you do not like beets, I suggest trying one of the “golden” varieties (see my blog post on Beet Varieties), which are sweeter and less earthy than many red beets. People commonly eat beets pickled, roasted (my favorite, with other root vegetables), or classically in Russian borscht soup.
Beet Varieties
Beets (Beta vulgaris), also known as beetroots, are the root portion of the beet plant, although the leaves are also eaten. Other cultivars under Beta vulgaris include sugar beets, mangelwurzel or fodder beets, and Swiss chard, which is basically beet greens without the root swelling. Here, I cover some of the main varieties of beets (not Swiss chard), including whether they are hybrid (F1) or open-pollinated (OP) varieties, their days to maturity, the color of the beetroot, and any other information that may be interesting, including any disease-resistance, when known. If you wish to learn more about how to grow beets, please see my other blog post (coming soon). Days to maturity in the chart usually refer to mature roots, unless otherwise stated. If you prefer baby leaves or baby beets, the number of days is closer to 35-40 days. Disease resistance in the chart is given as abbreviations. The list of abbreviations is listed below:
BLS - Bacterial Leaf Spot CLS - Cercospora Leaf Spot DM - Downy Mildew PM - Powdery Mildew RRCR - Rhizoctonia Root and Crown Rot
References and Resources
Growing EggplantsEggplants (Solanum melongena), also known as aubergines, are in the nightshade family (Solanaceae) along with tomatoes, peppers, and potatoes. The most well-known eggplants have the scientific name of Solanum melongena, although another less common species is S. aethiopicum (also known as S. integrifolium or S. gilo depending on where the eggplant originates). S. aethoiopicum is also called Ethiopian eggplant, bitter tomato, because they often look like a cross between a ripe tomato and an eggplant, or Pumpkin on a Stick, because some varieties look like miniature pumpkins. For more information on eggplant varieties, including their days to maturity, color and shape, origin, and more, please see my previous blog post. Eggplants are used as vegetables, even though they are technically fruits, similar to tomatoes and peppers. The most popular eggplant varieties in the United States are dark purple, bell-shaped fruits that are Italian eggplant cultivars. Elongated purple fruits also exist, usually of Asian descent, coming from Japan, China, Thailand, and India. However small, round eggplants, mini bell-shaped or elongated fruits, and those of various colors, including white, green, striped, and orange, also exist. Growing ConditionsEggplants, like tomatoes and peppers, prefer long, hot summers, although they grow quite well in northern climates by starting seeds early or buying transplants. Some newer hybrids have shorter days to maturity, but most eggplants need 60-90 days after transplanting to fully mature. If you are unfamiliar with starting plants from seed, please see my earlier blog post on “Starting Seeds.” Start seeds 6-10 weeks before transplanting outside, preferably on a heat mat. Seeds germinate at 80-90°F and grow best at 70°F after the seedlings emerge. Harden off the plants by reducing the temperature and exposing them to partial sun and wind. Once fully hardened off, transplant them into a raised bed or in-ground garden. I usually transplant my starts about 2 weeks after my average last frost date, usually the end of May to the beginning of June. If it is still cooler when transplanting, the plants will benefit from a frost cover. This will also keep insects at bay. The cover will need to be removed once the plant blossoms so pollination can occur (unless you are growing a parthenocarpic variety, which does not require pollination to set fruit. Space plants 18-24” inches apart in rows 30-36 inches apart. Because I grow my eggplants in raised beds, I do not use rows and instead plant them about 18” apart, sometimes going as small as 12”. This works okay for me because I keep my soil amended with compost and composted manure, so there are plenty of nutrients for the plants. Eggplants require fertile soil that is well-drained. Similar to other Solanum plants, they do not like wet feet. I always grow my eggplants in raised beds to ensure the best quality soil and proper drainage. If you are going to use chemical fertilizer, make sure it does not contain too much nitrogen, as this will encourage vegetative growth but not fruit set. A fertilizer designed for peppers and tomatoes also works well for eggplants. Many eggplant varieties are prolific enough that staking the plants is helpful. Some varieties are also more compact, so they do well in containers. Most varieties of eggplants do not grow bigger than about 2-3 feet tall and will still do well in containers. Pests and DiseaseEggplants are fairly disease and pest hardy, but flea beetles can be a problem, particularly when the plants are small. Colorado potato beetles also like eggplant, although not as much as potato plants. These bugs are easy to pick off but also check for orange eggs on the underside of the leaves and remove those as well. I have problems with slugs eating the fruit wherever it touches the ground. Staking the plants to keep most of the fruit off the ground is helpful. Lastly, I occasionally have aphid problems. Usually, spraying them off with strong hose water is sufficient to keep them at bay. One year I had such a problem with aphids I eventually pulled the plant because the aphids kept returning whether I sprayed them with water or even insecticidal soap. Eggplants can also be susceptible to diseases, such as Verticillium wilt. Rotating crops as much as possible can help reduce the incidence of disease. Some eggplant varieties are also disease-resistant. Harvest and UsageOnce mature, harvest the eggplant regularly, and the plant will continue to set more fruit. Eggplants are mature when the fruit is glossy, and the flesh yields slightly when pressed. If over-mature, the fruit can become bitter and seedy. If the eggplant has lost its shine, it is overripe. Eggplant is usually cooked, but some varieties can be eaten raw. Eggplants are commonly used in Italian cooking, such as Eggplant parmesan, in Asian cooking, in stir-fries and curries, and in Mediterranean cooking, such as Greek Moussaka. Eggplant generally cannot be canned, although Ball has a recipe for eggplant puttanesca (found in “The All New Ball Book of Canning and Preserving”), which is quite good. You can freeze eggplant after slicing it into 1/3-inch pieces and blanching for approximately four minutes in water containing ½ cup lemon juice per gallon of water. The lemon juice helps prevent the flesh from oxidizing and turning dark-colored. ConclusionAlthough eggplants are not my favorite to eat, I do enjoy eggplant parmesan a few times per year. I always grow at least one Italian-type and one Asian-type each season. Compared to tomatoes, they are much more disease-resistant, are lower maintenance, and take up less space in the garden. References and Resources
Eggplant Varieties
​Eggplants, also known as aubergine, belong to the nightshade family along with peppers, potatoes, and tomatoes. The most common eggplants have the scientific name of Solanum melongena although another less common species is S. aethiopicum (also known as S. integrifolium or S. gilo depending on where the eggplant originates). S. aethoiopicum is also called Ethiopian eggplant, bitter tomato, because they often look like a cross between a ripe tomato and an eggplant, or Pumpkin on a Stick, because some varieties look like miniature pumpkins.
​This post discusses the various eggplant types, which people categorize into two major groups: Asian-type (often Chinese or Japanese in origin) or Italian-type (which can originate in Italy or many other places). Asian eggplants are often long and slender with tender flesh and thin skin. People commonly use these types for stir-fries, curries, and sautéing. Italian eggplants are often bell-shaped and used in heartier Italian dishes such as eggplant parmesan. In the chart below, I list whether the variety is open-pollinated or a hybrid, how many days it takes to produce ripe fruit (starting from transplant date), the color and shape of the eggplant, where it originated or its type, and any other additional notes I find interesting. For information on “How to Grow Eggplants,â€
Leek Varieties
There are a surprisingly large number of different leek varieties. In the chart below, in addition to the variety name, I also list whether they are open-pollinated or an F1 hybrid, the typical harvest period (summer, fall, or winter), disease resistance, if any, and any other information that may be of interest. Please note, whether a leek is a summer, fall, or winter leek, or a leek that will overwinter, very much depends on the climate where you live. I live in Central Wisconsin, so leeks that may overwinter in warmer winter areas are less likely to survive the winter in my area. I attempted to compile a comprehensive list of varieties commonly available from seed suppliers primarily based in the north (these are the suppliers with which I am most familiar). Some varieties may be older ones that can be harder to find. If you have a favorite leek variety that you love that is missing from my list, please let me know, and I will add it. If you wish to explore varieties that include people’s real-world experiences with them, check out “Vegetable Varieties for Gardeners,â€
Growing Leeks Summer leeks growing in my raised beds. IntroductionLeeks, like onions, shallots, garlic, and chives, belong to the Allium genus. The scientific name of leeks is Allium ampeloprasum variety porrum, or sometimes called Allium porrum. Leeks grow with a round stem and flat leaves, but generally do not form a bulb. They taste similar to an onion but are milder. Leeks are white at the bottom, where they are protected from the sun, then turn lighter green until the leaves are darker green to a blue-green color. Leeks have been used since ancient Egyptian times, likely originating in Mesopotamia. The Romans brought leeks to Britain and Western Europe, where they have been cultivated since the early Middle Ages. What Type of Leek Should You Grow?
Once you have decided on whether you want to grow a summer, fall, or winter leek, you need to decide on a variety. Some leeks are short and fat, others are longer and thinner. Some have disease resistance; others have very little. There is a good selection of open-pollinated leek varieties as well as newer hybrid varieties. If you are trying to decide what variety of leek to grow, please see my blog post on “Leek Varieties” where I list the most common leek varieties, what type they are (summer, fall, or winter), days to maturity, hybrid versus open-pollinated, and more. When deciding on a new variety of vegetable to try, I also often consult a citizen science project called "Vegetable Varieties for Gardeners," coordinated by Cornell University, in which average home gardeners can rate and comment on different varieties. Some varieties do not have an entry, but many common varieties have information on how well they grew in different parts of the country and under specific conditions.  Leek and onion seedlings under grow lights. How to Grow LeeksLeeks, like onions, can take 100 to 150 days to mature, although many less cold-hardy summer leeks are ready sooner, in 80-100 days. Leeks can be easily grown from seeds, either by direct seeding or transplanting after seeding in pots; or you can often buy transplants as well. Leeks are easy to grow, but they are heavy feeders and require good-quality soil with a pH between 6.0-7.0 and high in nutrients and organic material. If your soil is poor, you can add compost or composted manure in the spring before planting or in the fall, the year before. If you are starting seeds in pots (see my blog posts on “The Basics of Seed Starting” and “Growing Great Onions” for more information). ), sow 8-12 weeks before the last frost. Thin if necessary and transplant outside after hardening off when they are roughly 8 inches tall and as thick as a pencil. I always have too many plants in my pots and end up transplanting them when they are much smaller than a pencil; they still grow fine. You can also trim them as they grow in pots, so they fit better under the grow lights and use the cut-off parts as you would chives. The roots can also be trimmed somewhat when transplanting them to make them easier to plant. To transplant, I use a dibble (see my previous blog post on "My Favorite Gardening Tools") to make holes about 6 inches deep and plant the leeks deep (only 2-3” need to remain above ground), roughly 6 inches apart. If you wish, plant them in rows 12 inches wide, but I plant them in my raised beds approximately 6 inches apart in all directions with no designated rows. You can also create a furrow, approximately 6 inches deep, if you do not have a dibble. If you do not plant them deep, you can instead hill your leeks with soil or compost a few times as they grow, which helps produce longer, white stalks. It is recommended to fertilize with a well-balanced fertilizer, such as 10-10-10, mid-summer.  I use a dibble tool to plant onions, leeks, and garlic. Leeks have shallow roots, so it is best not to allow the top few inches of soil to get too dry. I prefer to use soaker hoses or drip tape to water, as this keeps the water off the leaves and reduces the chances of fungal diseases. Generally, an inch of rain per week is sufficient, depending on the temperature and your soil composition (sandy soil requires more watering and clay soil, less). Because leeks have shallow roots, you want to be careful when weeding with a hoe or cultivator so that you do not dig too deeply and damage the roots. Mulching, with grass clippings (no herbicides!) or straw between the leeks and between rows, will reduce the amount of weeding you need to do. Pests and DiseaseThe only problems I have had growing leeks (and onions) are onion thrips (Thrips tabaci). These tiny insects are usually a problem in hot, dry summers, but they rarely kill a plant. If you find tiny silver-white spots on your leeks or onions, this is the damage caused by thrips feeding. Another pest problem, which I have not experienced, includes the onion maggot (Hylemya antiqua), which feeds on the roots and stems and can stunt the growth of the leek, causing wilting and yellowing. Various diseases can affect leeks, including botrytis leaf spot, downy mildew, pink root, purple blotch, smudge, and white rot. I have never experienced these diseases, but some leek varieties, particularly F1 hybrids, are resistant. Harvest and StorageYou can harvest leeks as you need them. If you are growing summer leeks, you should harvest any remaining leeks before a hard frost. Leeks will not die back like onions and should remain green until harvest. If my summer leeks start bolting, I usually take that as a sign that I should harvest them all soon after. Winter leeks can be mulched and hilled with soil if you wish to overwinter them or use them during the winter. I generally use leaves and frost cover to mulch and overwinter my leeks. Leeks can be stored for several weeks in a refrigerator (they will continue to grow very slowly, but too much growth reduces quality), ideally in a plastic bag with a damp paper towel around the roots. I like to buy food-safe, 5-gallon brine bags to store my leeks in, as they are generally too long to fit in a standard grocery store bag, even with the tops trimmed. If you have a separate refrigerator that you can keep colder, at ~32°F with high humidity, then the leeks may store for 2-3 months.  Freshly harvested leeks. Preserving LeeksThere are two methods for preserving leeks. The recommended method is to dehydrate, although they can also be frozen with some caveats. Canning is not recommended for two reasons. First, the high heat required for canning will make the leeks mushy. Second, because of the way leeks grow, they can have soil stuck between the layers. This increases the bacterial load, potentially including the bacterium that causes botulism, making them unsafe for canning. Although you can freeze leeks, it is not recommended as they can develop a strong, bitter flavor. I have frozen leeks and have not noticed any bitter taste, but I also use them in soups or sautés that may mask bitter flavors. They do get very mushy once thawed, which can be unappetizing. Therefore, if you have an excess of leeks, it is recommended that you dehydrate them. If you are new to dehydrating, please see my previous blog post. Briefly, leeks are very easy to dehydrate as they do not require blanching (some sources do recommend blanching before freezing or drying). To dehydrate leeks, I wash and remove any dead outer leaves. I cut off the root end and the dark green leaves, leaving the white and light green portion. I like to cut my leeks in half lengthwise to wash out any soil between the layers. I then slice the leek halves into roughly half-inch portions. Dehydrate at ~125° until dry, usually 8-24 hours. Using LeeksUsually, the white to light green portions of the leek are used. The darker green portion, although edible, can be bitter, fibrous, and tough. Some recipes, like the classic cock-a-leekie soup, may have you boil the darker green portions to make the broth. In addition to cock-a-leekie soup, leeks are also traditionally used in potato leek soup, egg dishes, such as omelets and frittatas, braised leeks, pasta dishes, and more. Leeks can also be used as a replacement for onions or shallots in most recipes, although they do tend to break down and cook faster, so they should be added later in most recipes. ConclusionsFor me, leeks are one of the easiest vegetables to grow. They take up little room in a garden and are one of my favorite vegetables to cook. I was always intimidated to start leeks, onions, and shallots from seed, but as long as your seed is new for that year, they are very easy to start. I also love that leeks can be overwintered, providing you with fresh vegetables in early spring. References and Resources
 Fermenting Hard Apple CiderIn the United States, hard cider refers to fermented alcoholic cider, and sweet cider refers to fresh, non-alcoholic cider. In Europe and the United Kingdom, any reference to cider refers to fermented cider, while fresh, sweet cider is called apple juice (if you live/have lived in Europe/UK, please correct me if I am wrong). In the United States, apple juice is cooked and filtered to be clear, while sweet cider is usually unfiltered and not cooked, though in most states it must be pasteurized for food safety reasons if sold commercially. Pasteurization does not significantly change the taste of fresh cider, but makes it safer to drink, particularly for the very young, very old, or immunocompromised individuals. Fresh sweet cider can be made with many different types of apples, many of them sweet and/or acidic. Hard cider is best made from a blend of sweet, acidic, and tannic apples, but to be honest, you should make it with whatever apples or juice you can get your hands on. If you are interested in learning more about what types of apples are good for cider, please visit my blog post on “Apple Varieties for Northern Climates,” which includes charts on cider-specific apple varieties, crab apple varieties, many of which are also good for cider, and apples for fresh eating and cooking, which also includes many varieties used in cider, particularly sweet cider. The first step in making hard cider is to make fresh cider (or buy it), which you can then ferment using either naturally occurring wild yeast or purchased commercial yeast. Please see my previous blog post, “How to Make Sweet Apple Cider,” for information on grinding and pressing apples to make fresh cider. This blog post will start at the fermentation step of the process. If you want more information on fermenting in general, please see my blog post on “The Basics of Fermenting Wine”. Although this post is on wine, most of the topics are relevant for cider as well. Many people prefer to use wild yeast, allowing whatever natural yeasts to colonize the cider and ferment the sugars. I prefer to choose my specific type of yeast, as different varieties can impart different flavors and have different pH, temperature, and alcohol tolerances. I also prefer dry cider (little to no residual sugar), so I want a yeast with high alcohol tolerance to ensure the sugar is completely fermented. If you allow wild yeasts to ferment your cider, you do not need to add yeast, but you may want to add pectic enzyme to help reduce haziness and yeast nutrients to boost fermentation. You can also add tannins if you are using mostly sweet apples. If you use commercially available yeast, you may want to treat the fresh cider with potassium metabisulfite to reduce the chances that wild yeast and bacteria contaminate the ferment. Potassium metabisulfite also reduces oxidation, which helps protect the color and flavor/aroma and reduces the chance of spoilage. Once potassium metabisulfite is added, you must wait at least 24 hours before pitching the commercially purchased yeast. I started fermenting hard cider only a few years ago, but I have tried several different types of yeast in an attempt to find one that we liked the best. I have been limited in the past by the number of apples I was harvesting, but now enough of our trees have matured to the point where we have extra to make small batches of both sweet and hard cider. Yeast SelectionAs mentioned above, many home-brewed ciders are fermented with natural, wild yeasts. As a trained microbiologist, I much prefer to pitch a commercial yeast rather than depend on a wild yeast, which by its nature has more unknowns. Thus far, I have tried several different types of yeast. In 2023, I only had enough cider for a single one-gallon batch, and I used Fermentis SafAle S-04 dry ale yeast, which ferments ideally between 59-68°F and has an alcohol tolerance of 9-11%. This yeast made a drinkable cider, but I could detect a chemical aftertaste. By 2024, I had read that many people prefer to use wine yeast, specifically Champagne-type yeast, so I compared the SafAle S-04 to the very common Champagne wine yeast, Lalvin EC-1118. Unfortunately, the SafAle cider ended up extremely sulfurous during the fermentation. This was likely my fault because I had accidentally added too much yeast nutrients to that batch. However, with enough racking and time, most of the sulfur odor went away. Both ciders turned out well, but I wasn’t completely sold on either. The EC-1118 yeast is a vigorous fermenter, and I felt the cider had less flavor than the SafAle, likely from so much off-gassing of volatile compounds that give the fruity smell and flavor to cider. This year (2025), I tried another wine yeast, Red Star Premier Côte des Blanc, because a brewing supply company did a taste test of ciders brewed with different yeasts and found that Côte des Blanc, which is also their best-selling yeast for cider, was overwhelmingly a favorite. My Côte des Blanc cider is currently clarifying in a carboy, but I hope to bottle it in the next month or two and will provide an update once it is properly carbonated and aged. Testing Your Cider Before FermentationIf you wish to know the sugar level of your cider, you will need either a hydrometer with a test jar or a graduated cylinder. A hydrometer is used to measure the specific gravity before and after fermentation. Specific gravity, also known as relative density, is a measure of how dense a solution is compared to distilled water. For example, the more sugar a solution has, the denser it is compared to water and the higher its specific gravity. The specific gravity of pure water is 1.0. Any solution higher than 1.0 is denser, and any solution less than 1.0 is less dense. Alcohol is less dense than water; therefore, as sugar is fermented into alcohol, the specific gravity of a solution decreases. The specific gravity readings can then be used to determine alcohol concentrations and whether the fermentation has been completed. To test specific gravity, you float the hydrometer in a sample of your juice (pre-fermentation) or hard cider (post-fermentation) and take a reading. More information on how to calculate the alcohol content is given below. You can also use a refractometer instead of a hydrometer to determine the original sugar concentration. We bought a digital refractometer (cheaper manual ones are also available) to measure the Brix (percent sugar) in our wine grapes, so we know when to harvest them. This can be used on fruit juices as well, but it does not give accurate readings once fermentation has begun, since alcohol affects accuracy. The advantage of a refractometer is that you can test much smaller juice samples than you can with a hydrometer. You may also want to adjust sugar or acid levels before fermenting. The sugar levels of my fresh apple ciders are generally between 8-13 Brix, which should give a final alcohol content between 4-7%, respectively, so I do not usually add extra sugar. If you wish to increase the alcohol content of your hard cider, a general rule is to add 1.5 oz of sugar to raise 1 gallon of juice by 1 Brix. Add less sugar than you think, mix well, and then test your specific gravity/Brix again. To measure the sugar level with a hydrometer, put the juice in your graduated cylinder, place the hydrometer in the juice, and read the specific gravity (read the number at the bottom of the meniscus). Most cider should be between 1.030-1.070 for the original gravity (OG) and 1.002 or lower at the end for the final gravity (FG) if it has fermented to completion (a dry cider with no residual sugar). To calculate the alcohol by volume using specific gravities, use the formula ABV = (OG-FG) x 131.25, or use an online calculator. If you prefer sweeter cider, you either have to stop the fermentation before it reaches a 1.002 specific gravity using potassium sorbate or allow it to ferment to dryness and then back-sweeten (covered below). When using a refractometer, the original Brix reading multiplied by 0.55 gives an estimated ABV, assuming the fermentation has completed to dryness. You may also want to test the pH and titratable acidity (TA) of your cider. My ciders are generally between pH 3.1-3.3, which is acidic, and I do not usually change the pH. If you end up with a higher pH (lower acidity), above about 3.5-3.8, you may want to add extra acid. Usually, malic acid is added as malic acid is the primary acid in apples (as opposed to grapes, which have mostly tartaric acid). Too high a pH may occur due to overly ripe apples, as most fruit ripens, the acidity tends to decrease. Keeping the pH lower also helps reduce the chance of spoilage. If you wish to test the TA of your cider, which is different from pH (pH is the strength of the acid in a solution, while TA is the amount of acid present), you can use a TA test kit. I like the ones from Accuvin, which are easy to use, and they make a special TA test kit just for hard ciders, which measures TA as malic acid instead of tartaric acid, as the TA kits for grapes do. The Accuvin test can give a result from 5.4-9.8 g/L malic acid. According to their website, the amount of malic acid desired depends on the style of cider. For example, a European-type cider that is more tannic should be roughly 4.5-6.0 g/L (they also offer a cider/apple/pear TA kit with a range of 3.6-8.0 g/L). A dry style cider should be approximately 6.0-7.6 g/L, and a sweeter cider should be even higher. Once you have calculated the percentage of sugar, pH, and TA and made any necessary changes, you are ready to begin fermentation. Remember, if you added potassium metabisulfite, you must wait at least 24 hours before pitching your yeast. A Basic Hard Cider Recipe
FermentationIf you do not have GoFerm, you can add Fermaid K or Fermaid O yeast nutrient or another generic yeast nutrient instead. Lately, I have been rehydrating my yeast in GoFerm before I pitch it into my juice, but I have had a lot of success in the past just pitching the dry yeast onto the top of the juice. I have also started adding additional yeast nutrients a few days into the fermentation process to give the yeast a boost once a lot of the original nutrients have been used up. I ferment in a plastic, food-safe fermentation bucket with an air lock. I fill the air lock with potassium metabisulfite; others like to use vodka. Make sure to leave a few inches of headspace in the fermentation bucket to keep the cider from bubbling into the airlock. I usually stir the cider once every day while it is vigorously fermenting, to help it off-gas and mix in the yeast, but once fermentation slows, I generally stop stirring (unless you get sulfur compounds, in which case you want to vigorously stir it to off-gas the sulfur). After about 1-2 weeks, I transfer the cider to a glass carboy with an air lock. You can keep a little headspace as long as it is still fermenting. If fermentation appears to have completely stopped, you want to eliminate as much headspace as possible. You can top off with an older batch of bottled cider, a commercially available cider, or use fresh cider or apple juice. Clarifying and BottlingI rack the cider when a significant amount of yeast and debris settles to the bottom of the carboy. If your cider is slow to clarify, you can place it in a cold area like a refrigerator or outdoors (not so cold that it will freeze), which will speed up clarification. Once it is as clear as you want it, you can bottle your cider. I usually bottle 2-3 months after fermentation, but some prefer to age longer, up to one year. I rack the cider into a fermentation bucket and mix in approximately 2/3 cup of table sugar to a 5-gallon batch of cider, and then bottle it. This additional sugar will allow fermentation to occur in the bottle, which will carbonate it. You can find beer priming calculators online if you have an odd-sized batch of cider, which will determine the amount of sugar to add. You can also buy priming sugar drops at brew supply stores, which you add individually to each bottle before bottling. If you decide to back-sweeten your cider, please see below; otherwise, you can skip straight to bottling. You can also choose to oak your cider using cubes, chips, or spirals. I have never tried oaking my cider, but I am currently waiting for an apple wine to clarify and plan to add oak cubes for 3 months when I rack it next for bulk aging. In order to bottle, you will need caps and a bottle capper, or you can use the Grolsch-style bottles, which have replaceable gaskets. I much prefer to bottle with the Grolsch-style bottles as they are easier to close than using a handheld bottle capper. There are floor-style bottle cappers, which may be easier to use than the handheld type, but I have never personally used one. Back-SweeteningIf you wish to back-sweeten your cider, this can get more complicated. You can sweeten your cider to taste and then stabilize the cider with potassium sorbate, which will prevent further fermentation of the additional sugar you added. You do need to stabilize, or you risk your bottles blowing up when fermentation occurs in the bottle. The downside of this strategy is that you cannot carbonate in the bottle because the addition of sorbate will also prevent the subsequent fermentation needed to carbonate. If you really want sweet cider and also want it carbonated, you will need to carbonate with a keg system. If you do not want to invest in a keg system, then you can back-sweeten with artificial sugars that are not fermentable. This way, you can sweeten your cider and still carbonate it in the bottle with the addition of sugar. The downside of this strategy is that artificial sweeteners can give a chemical taste to your cider, and some people are opposed to artificial sweeteners because of potential health effects. ConclusionsI am looking forward to experimenting more with cider, including using tannic cider apples and not just table apples in my cider. Currently, I am waiting for my cider apple trees to mature and start producing fruit. I also would like to experiment with perry (pear cider) and adding other fruit to my apple cider (maybe strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, or peaches?). If you are looking for more resources on how to make cider and other ferments, please see my blog post on the “Top Books on Alcohol Fermentation”. If you have made a hard cider that you love, I would love to hear the recipe. References and Resources
Peach and Nectarine Varieties for Northern Climates
​Peaches and nectarines are native to China but were introduced to Florida by the Spanish in the 1500s. Peaches and nectarines belong to the Prunus genus, the same as plums and apricots. The scientific name (genus and species) of the peach is Prunus persica, while nectarines are derived from a natural mutation in peaches that allows them to grow without the fuzz found on peaches. Nectarines, therefore, have the same scientific genus and species name as peaches. Although peaches and nectarines grow best in warm climates, several peach varieties are suitable for growing in zone 4, where I live. However, I have yet to find a nectarine ideal for growing in zone 4. Most peaches and nectarines are self-pollinating and therefore do not need another nearby tree to produce fruit. There are a few peach varieties that do recommend a pollinator. Because nectarines lack the fuzz that peaches have, they are more susceptible to disease and insect predation. The fuzz acts as a protective barrier for peaches. Therefore, nectarine trees may need more fungicide and insecticide sprays than peach trees.
Special Note: Peaches and nectarines can have yellow or white flesh. It has been found that white-fleshed varieties are lower in acid (higher pH) than the yellow-fleshed varieties and therefore should not be canned due to the increased risk of botulism. See the NCHFP site on canning peaches for more information. Peaches
Nectarines
References and Resources
Apricot Varieties for Northern Climates
​Apricots, like plums and peaches, belong to the Prunus genus; however, they are a different species, Prunus armeniaca. If you are interested in plum-apricot crosses that are more plum-like, please see my post on Plums for Northern Climates. Here, I will list apricots only as Apriums®, which are plum-apricot crosses that are more apricot-like and are better suited to warm climates, usually zone 7 and higher. Apricots are native to China (near the Russian border) and were cultivated there for thousands of years. Apricots likely arrived in the United States via the East and West coasts, and they are now mostly cultivated commercially in California. There are a few varieties that are hardy to zones 3 and 4, but most grow best in zones 5-9.
We have not had the best luck growing apricots in Central Wisconsin (zone 4), perhaps partly because Apricots do not like wet feet or humid conditions, and are prone to fungal diseases, and most of our land is wet, consisting of two ponds and a marsh. We have tried two varieties, Goldcot and Moorpark, and neither survived more than a year. We also struggled to establish peach trees, but now have three varieties that have survived two years or more and have even harvested a few peaches. To be fair to the apricots, one was purchased from a company that did not ship at the correct time, and in general, I found their other trees to be weak and unlikely to thrive. I do plan to try new varieties of Apricots to see if we have better luck, and also plan to plant them on the only hill we have on our land, which should provide better drainage.
References and Resources
Plum jelly made from Toka or Bubblegum plums.
Plum Varieties for Northern Climates
​Plum trees belong to the Prunus genus, as do other common fruits and nuts, including cherries, peaches, and almonds. There are three main types of domesticated plums available in the United States: European plums (Prunus domestica), Asian or Japanese plums (Prunus salicina), and crosses, such as the cherry plum, Asian and cherry plum crosses, plum and apricot (Prunus armeniaca) crosses, or European or Asian plums crossed with the wild American plum. The United States and Canada have native plum trees as well, the American or wild plum (Prunus americana) and the Canada or black plum (Prunus nigra). Both produce small, edible fruit and grow as small trees or large shrubs. Although the native plums are commonly known as American (zones 3-8) or Canada plums, they can both be found in the United States and Canada. There is one domesticated Canada plum available, known as the Bounty Nigra plum. This tree produces small reddish clingstone plums with yellow flesh. This fruit is good for jams, tarts, fresh eating, chutneys, or infusing alcohol.
​Below, I give a brief description of the different types of plum trees and a chart of the most common varieties of each type, all of which are cold-hardy (most will grow in zones 4 or 5, but there are even a few that will grow in zone 3). Most of these plums also grow as far south as zones 8 or 9. Please note that many characteristics on the chart vary depending on the rootstock the tree is grafted onto, the weather conditions that year, or even microclimates within your zone. There are also many other possible pollinators than those listed. Cummins Nursery is a great resource to check other pollination partners, as they have a very comprehensive list for each plum variety. If you have a favorite cold-hardy plum that is not on this list, please send me a message so I can add it. These charts are not comprehensive, as there are over 2,000 varieties of plums; therefore, I chose ones that are commonly available at several different nurseries.
European Plums
European plums (Prunus domestica), as their name suggests, originated in Europe. They can be yellow, blue, or green in color with firm flesh. European plums tend to ripen in late summer. Many European plums are self-fertile but will set more fruit when nearby pollinator trees are present. European plums require another European plum for pollination and will not cross-pollinate with an Asian plum. European plum trees generally grow to about 15 feet tall. European plums tend to be more cold-hardy than Asian plums.
Asian Plums
Asian plums (Prunus salicina) are native to China, Japan, and Korea, and tend to be juicy, as they were selected for use in plum wine and plum sauce, common in Asian cultures. They were introduced into the United States via Japan in the late 1800s, and many were crossed by plant breeder Luther Burbank, including wild American plums (discussed in the “Plum Crossesâ€
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AuthorIn 2016, my family and I moved from the New York City area to a small town in Wisconsin. Our move, this website and blog (and our previous Etsy store) is the result of our desire over the past several years to simplify our lives, enhance our quality of life, reconnect with nature, and enjoy a more self-sufficient life. I grew up as a country kid in central Pennsylvania, working on my grandfather's fruit farm and as a corn "de-tassler" at a local seed farm. My background is in biology, where my love of nature originated. I am a former research scientist and professor and have now transitioned to a part-time stay-at-home mom, self-employed tutor, and small business owner. Thank you for taking the time to check out my site. Archives
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