Pepper Varieties
I have compiled a list of pepper varieties I have grown or have seeds but have yet to plant. I split the varieties into two charts: hot and sweet peppers (coming soon). I will add to these charts as I try new varieties and will also try to add the most common varieties whether I have grown them or not. In general, I do not grow the super-hot varieties, although that may change in the future.
In the chart, OP means open-pollinated or seeds that can be saved and will grow true (assuming no cross-pollination). F1 refers to hybrid seeds, which are crosses from two different varieties. These seeds are generally not saved because they are not likely to grow like the parent varieties, even if cross-pollination does not occur. As you can see from the chart I highly prefer open-pollinated varieties as I like to save seed (although I get a lot of cross-pollination because I do not separate my plants). Unless otherwise noted, most varieties are Capsicum annuum, the most common pepper species. Please check out my blog post on the commonly cultivated pepper species for more information on each species. Days to maturity are estimates and may vary depending on where the plants are grown and the weather during that growing season. Days to maturity are the number of days after transplant, add another 8-12 weeks (or more for super hots) if starting from seed. Scoville numbers are in Scoville heat units (SHU) and can vary quite a bit from plant to plant or even from different peppers on the same plant. Environmental conditions such as temperature, water, soil, humidity, sun exposure, and pests can all alter the heat level. The stage of ripening can also change the heat level. Peppers that have the NuMex designation are those that have been created or improved upon by New Mexico State University Chile Pepper Institute. TMV is tobacco mosaic virus a plant virus that also infects peppers and tomatoes. AAS is an All-America Selections winner. AAS is a non-profit organization that tests how well plants grow. I compiled these lists from various seed companies and other resources listed at the end of this post. Hot Pepper Varieties
Sweet Pepper Varieties
References and Resources
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Bringing Nature Home by Douglas W. TallamyThe book Bringing Nature Home: How You Can Sustain Wildlife with Native Plants by Douglas W. Tallamy is a great introduction to why native plants matter and what you can do to help increase native biodiversity. Below I discuss some of the take-aways from his book.  Why Should We Care about Native Plants? Plants are a key food for many animal and insect species. You may think that the type of plant does not matter but it is becoming increasingly clear that many bees, butterflies, and other insects can feed only on certain plants (see my post on the endangered Karner Blue Butterfly), generally, the plants they evolved with, which are the native plants in that region. These types of insects are called specialists. Furthermore, many birds depend on the seeds of native plants as a food source and insects are also a key food for birds. You cannot discuss planting natives without bringing up invasive and non-native plants. Many invasive plants, trees, and shrubs were initially planted as ornamental plants, but occasionally they grow aggressively and outcompete native plants. Therefore, removing invasive species often goes along with planting native ones. You do not need to remove every non-native species in your garden (although feel free to if you want), many non-natives do not spread aggressively or harm the environment. Native Plantings Look Messy Many native plant gardens are meant to mimic the natural environment and unfortunately, many people find these gardens messy and unkempt. However, you can landscape native plant gardens just like landscaped ornamentals. Mowing paths with sharp edges through your native garden can impact on how your garden is perceived. However, native gardens do best with dense plantings (less mulched areas) to provide cover for insects and other wildlife. How to Plant More Natives? Many homeowners start by removing invasive or non-native species on their property and then replace them with similar native plants. I have used this technique on my property, although we have 75 acres covered in glossy buckthorn, so this will be a lifetime commitment. Another method recommended by Doug Tallamy is when a non-native plant dies, replace it with a native one. If you want to make a difference more quickly you can carve out a part of your lawn, kill the grass, and replace it with a native flower garden. Alternatively, you can leave your non-native plants (assuming they are not invasive) and add more native trees and shrubs to your lawn and landscaping, space permitting. What Natives Should You Plant? What you should plant depends on many factors, such as sun, soil type, moisture, etc. Many native plant nurseries have filters that allow you to focus on plants native to your area that fit your specific requirements. The other option is to focus on keystone species. Doug Tallamy gives a list based on the current (incomplete) research of what native plants host the most herbivorous insects. The idea is that the more species that can live on that plant the more diversity you are supporting by planting that species and the more birds are also helped by providing food sources in the form of insects. His book focuses on plants native to the Eastern United States because that is where he lives, this information is much less complete for other areas. However, he concluded that oaks provide the most support for insects, as many as 534 species. Following oaks are willows, cherry/plum (Prunus), birch, poplar/cottonwood, crabapple, blueberry/cranberry (Vaccinium), box elder maple, elm, pine, hickory, hawthorn, alder, spruce, ash, basswood/linden, filbert/hazelnut, walnut/butternut, beech, and last chestnut, which supports 125 species. What Else Can You Do?Light pollution is a real problem. Moths are drawn to lights at night and will not leave until the light turns off, causing them to die of exhaustion or being burned by lights. Due to light pollution, some moths, such as the royal walnut moth, can no longer be found in New England. Leaving unnecessary lights on at night may also affect fireflies which appear to be declining. Using motion-activated lights that shut off when motion is no longer detected is better than leaving lights shining all night. Bonus, you may also be able to see the stars! ConclusionIf you wish to learn more there are other great books by Douglas W. Tallamy including Nature's Best Hope: A New Approach to Conservation That Starts in Your Yard and The Nature of Oaks: The Rich Ecology of Our Most Essential Native Trees.
Apple Varieties
I compiled a list of apple varieties and some of their relevant characteristics. Our apples have just started to produce in the last couple of years and I always have to look up when they are supposed to be harvested, what they are best used for, and how long they will store. I separated the varieties into three charts, one for cider apples, one for crab apples, and one for fresh eating and cooking apples. Some apples fit into multiple charts, so I put them in the best one. Because I live in zone 4, I only focus on zone 4 and colder apple varieties but when various resources disagree, I will include those that appear to be borderline 4/5. Also, the rootstock that the apple is grafted onto can make a difference in cold hardiness. Even though these apples are cold-hardy they can be grown in warmer zones, generally up to zone 9. The recommended harvest time will also vary depending on your zone and the growing season that year. These charts will give you a general idea but once your trees start producing it is best to keep records of when the apples ripen each year. If you have a favorite apple, hardy to at least zone 4, and it is not on my list, please let me know and I will add it!
Cider Apple Varieties
Cider apples are unique in that many are not good for fresh eating. Some have earned the nickname “spittersâ€
 Jimmy Nardello peppers, a sweet, Italian frying pepper, belonging to the C. annuum species. These are roughly 8 inches long. Cultivated Pepper SpeciesThe Solanaceae or nightshade family includes many plants commonly grown in home gardens. Some plants are toxic, but many are grown for food including peppers, tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplant. Peppers belong to the Capsicum genus and tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplant belong to the Solanum genus. There are many species in the Capsicum genus but only 5-6 are generally cultivated in the United States, including C. annuum, C. baccatum C. chinense, C. frutescens, C. glabruisculum, and C. pubescens (1, 2). The majority of, and most familiar, peppers grown in the United States are C. annuum. Please refer to my blog post on pepper varieties for more information about various pepper cultivars. From left to right, Topik cherry peppers, early jalapeno, and Boldog Hungarian spice paprika peppers, all beloning to the C. annuum species. C. annuumThe C. annuum species includes some of the most common pepper varieties in the United States including bell peppers, jalapeno, poblano, serrano, cayenne, Anaheim/Hatch, Thai chili, and paprika peppers. These peppers originated in South America. Some of my favorite C. annuum peppers that may be less well known include Jimmy Nardello, a sweet Italian frying pepper that pairs well with Italian sausage, shishito, a Japanese variety best served blistered, and fish peppers, not just for their beautiful striped colors, their use in tasty fish stews, but also for their history in the African American community (3). From left to right, a chocolate beauty bell pepper, shishito peppers, and a violet sparkle sweet pepper, all belonging to the C. annuum species. C. baccatumSome of the C. baccatum varieties include the Aji peppers such as lemon drop aji and aji Amarillo, many of which are associated with Peru. This species also includes the bishop’s crown, Brazilian starfish, sugar rush peach, Nepalese Bell (aka Nepali), and sweet piquanté (Peppadew brand name) peppers. These peppers originated in South and Central America and can include interesting shapes. Many have a citrus flavor. I am growing both the lemon drop aji and the Nepalese bell peppers for the first time this year and both plants are significantly larger, close to 4 feet tall, than the C. annuum species. I have grown Brazilian starfish in the past and all three are slow to ripen compared to C. annuum. The first year growing the Brazilian starfish I did not get a single ripe pepper before frost (I am in zone 4) so I grew them in a pot the second year to bring them in under lights if needed. From left to right, ripe lemom drop aji peppers, a lemon drop aji bush much bigger than C. annuum pepper plants to its left, and a Nepalese bell pepper, all C. bacatuum species. C. chinenseThe most well-known C. chinense varieties are the habanero types, including scotch bonnet, ghost peppers, 7 pot peppers, and Pepper X, the hottest pepper in the world. These peppers originated in South and Central America, not China as the name would suggest. Many of these peppers tend to have citrus or floral notes and wrinkled skin. Although these peppers are very popular, particularly for hot sauces, I have yet to grow these, because I prefer mild to medium spicy peppers. C. frutescensC. frutescens species include the Tabasco pepper, piri-piri (aka peri-peri), and other less well-known varieties many from Asia (including the Philippines, Indonesia, China, and Japan) and some from Africa, although the species originated in South and Central America. Many of these pepper plants are smaller, shrub-like with small, upright facing peppers.  A yellow Corno di Toro (horn of the bull) C. annuum pepper, approximately 8 inches long. The red and yellow Corno di Toro are very sweet when ripe, very prolific, and one of my favorite sweet peppers. C. glabruisculumThe chiltepin pepper, native to Mexico, the southwest United States, and northern South America was formerly classified as a variety of C. annuum but has now been given its own species, C. glabrisculum. This pepper is tiny and very hot (usually between 50,000-100,000 but depending on the growing season may reach 250,000 Scoville Heat Units). I grew these mostly as a decorative pepper but also dried the ripe peppers to use as hot pepper flakes. C. pubescens The C. pubescens species originated in Bolivia and Peru and is probably the least well-known cultivated pepper variety. The more well-known varieties include the rocoto/locoto pepper and manzano/manzana pepper. These are small, apple-shaped peppers, similar to a small bell pepper but can have a decent amount of heat ranging from 30,000-100,000 SHU. These peppers are unique from the other cultivated species in that their flowers are purple instead of white for most other peppers, their foliage is hairy, their seeds are black, and they are more cold-tolerant. Poblano peppers (left) and end of season green peppers (center and right), all C. annuum species. Our short growing season in zone 4 means we ususally end up with lots of green peppers at the end of the season. References and Resources
History of No-Mow May The No-Mow May movement was started by a non-profit organization, Plantlife (1), based out of Great Britain, in 2019. The movement was popularized in the United States with help from the city of Appleton, Wisconsin (a couple of hours from where I live in Central Wisconsin) and Lawrence University, also in Appleton (2). Appleton and Lawrence are associated with an initiative of the Xerces Society, Bee City, and Bee Campus (3). The Xerxes Society is a nonprofit organization focused on saving insect habitats and thereby the insects themselves. The first No-Mow May campaign began in Appleton and the surrounding Fox Cities area in 2020. Due to its catchy name and, I think, many people’s desire to make a difference in the environment, the movement quickly caught on. The point of No-Mow May is, logically, to not mow your yard in May (in more southern locations No-Mow April makes more sense) to increase the number of flowers for bees to forage, particularly early in the spring when food is limited. Does No-Mow May Make a Difference? The short answer is, it depends. If you have a perfectly manicured lawn with no flowers (what many people consider weeds in lawns) then allowing your grass to grow tall is not helpful (4). If on the other hand, you have many different flowering plants (especially natives) growing in your lawn, it could make a difference. However, what flowers you have growing in your lawn is what matters. Many lawns that are not treated with herbicides tend to grow dandelions and Creeping Charlie. While some bees will visit these flowers, they are not the best source of nutrition for bees. Creeping Charlie is invasive in many states and it is not a reliable source of nectar for bees (5). Dandelion pollen has a low protein content (only 15%), which is not sufficient nutrition for bees (6). Ideally, you would plant native flowers in your lawn, in my area violets (Viola sororia), Self-heal (Prunella vulgaris) and Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) do well. Native plants also have an advantage in that they attract native bees (7) (honeybees are not native to the United States). Dutch white clover (Trifolium repens) is a good bee food since it has high protein content in the pollen and high sugar content in the nectar and does great in lawns, although Dutch white clover is not native (7). Creeping thyme (Thymus praecox) is also often included in lawn bee mixes, although it is also not native, because it is low-growing and a good source of nectar (7). For me, the best part about No-Mow May is that it is a gateway for many people to learn about why all insects are important (bird food!), not just bees, and how to add and improve insect habitat on their own properties (2). Slow-Mow SummerSlow-Mow Summer is an alternative to No-Mow May. Similar movements are called Slow-Mow Spring, Low-Mow Spring, and Low-Mow Summer. These movements are closer to the ideal of helping native insects for a longer time than just one month. If you do decide to plant native flowers for bees to forage, not mowing only one month out of the year does not help as much as it could. Ideally, you would mow less often and mow higher (about 4”), allowing your native (or partially native) ground cover a chance to flower between mowings (8-10). Dutch white clover (left), while not native is a good food for bees. Purple self-heal (Prunella) flowers and yarrow (ferny-type plant) are both native flowers that adapt well to lawns. Why do Lawns Matter?It is estimated that up to 40 million acres of land in the United States have been converted into lawns (11). Most lawns are sterile, providing little food for herbivorous insects, which feed the birds, especially baby birds. If rural and suburban homeowners are willing to reduce the size of their lawns, switch some of their laws to bee lawns, and increase native flower plantings (see below), this could make a huge difference in increasing biodiversity in the United States (11). An Alternative to Slow-Mow Summer One alternative to mowing less often is to create flower beds full of native flowers. There is nothing wrong with keeping a lawn, it is great for dogs and kids especially. However, decreasing the size of lawns and increasing native plant beds is a great, probably even better idea, than trying to turn turfgrass into a low-growing flowering bee lawn (11). In conjunction with planting native plants is to not clean up your flower beds in the fall (#LeaveTheLeaves) and delay clean-up until late spring. Or at the very least trim your beds and let the dead stalks hang out nearby along with any leaves until spring. Many native insects overwinter in dead plant debris and leaves and many birds feast on dead seed heads all winter. ConclusionWhether you choose to plant a bee lawn, reduce or eliminate pesticide usage, add native plants to your flower beds, reduce the size of your lawn, or whatever combination works for you and your property, the important thing is to make a change and bring awareness to the issue of declining pollinators and insects in general. I have listed many resources below if you are interested in reading further. The University of Minnesota Bee Lab also has a list of companies that sell bee lawn mixes if you wish to change some of your lawn to a bee lawn (12). Alternatively, there are several native plant nurseries, such as Prairie Moon Nursery in Minnesota (13) and Prairie Nursery in Wisconsin (14) that sell native seeds and plants online. References and Resources
Storage Onions and Shallots for Northern ClimatesI compiled a list of onions and shallots that grow well in northern climates and store well for the winter. These are long-day or long-intermediate-day onions. I have included their best-growing latitudes (when known), days to maturity, whether they are open-pollinated or hybrid (F1) varieties, and how well they store under ideal conditions. If you do not know if you are in a long-day onion zone you can check out Johnny's Selected Seed map of long-day, intermediate-day, and short-day latitudes. The zones do overlap and you can also choose day-neutral onions as well. Several yellow onion varieties are compared to Copra. Copra was an F1 hybrid yellow onion that was the gold standard for storage onions. Copra was discontinued but, Patterson F1 is now one of the best, if not the best storage onion available. So, if an onion is compared to Copra, you can expect extremely long storage potential. I did not include any sweet onions in my charts. Due to their high sugar content sweet onions do not store well. In some cases, Walla Walla (90-125 days to maturity), an intermediate-long day variety, can store up to one month but is best eaten fresh. Another alternative is Ailsa Craig OP (110 days, long-day, 38-60° latitude), a large, sweet, Spanish-type yellow onion that stores for up to one month. Pictures of many of the onions I have grown are shown with a tennis ball for size reference. These were some of the biggest onions I grew, please note not all got to these sizes. At the end of this post, I include the seed companies used to compile this list. If you have any other favorite long-day storage onion varieties I missed in this list please let me know and I will update the charts! Also, read my blog post on growing onions if you want more information. Red Onions Ruby Red OP Red Wethersfield OP Red Mountain F1 Red Bull F1 Yellow Onions Patterson F1 Talon F1 New York Early OP Yellow of Parma OP White Onions  Southport White Globe, the only white onion I have grown thus far. Shallots Val-Aux-Vents OP Zebrune OP References and Resources
Cucurbita Genus: Squash and Pumpkin Species Pictured clockwise starting from the upper left is Delicata squash, Jack-Be-Little gourd, Gill's Golden Pippin squash, Acorn squash, Sweet Dumpling squash, and Buttercup squash. All are C. pepo species, except for Buttercup which is a C. maxima. Cucurbitaceae Family The Cucurbitaceae family includes squash, pumpkins, gourds, melons, cucumbers, bitter melons, and luffa. The Cucurbita genus, the focus of this blog post, includes squash, pumpkins, and gourds. Species in the Cucurbita genus include C. argyrosperma, C. ficifolia, C. maxima, C. moschata, and C. pepo. Below I review each species including commonly grown varieties and conclude with a discussion of cross-pollination concerns if you wish to save seed. Cucurbita argyrosperma C. argyrosperma species include the Cushaw-type squash. The most well-known variety in the United States is the Green-Striped Cushaw. Other varieties found in the United States include the Japanese Pie Pumpkin and Orange-Striped Cushaw. This species originated from Mexico and was previously known as C. mixta. Cucurbita ficifolia C. ficifolia is an edible squash, not well known in the United States. It has many common names including fig-leaf gourd, Malabar gourd, Asian pumpkin, and more. It is commonly grown in South America, Mexico, Asia, and Africa.  Golden Hubbard squash a variety that belongs to the C. maxima species. Cucurbita maxima The C. maxima species includes squash varieties well-known in the United States including Boston Marrow, North Georgia Candy Roaster, Hubbard (both blue and golden), Red Kuri, Turk’s Turban, Buttercup, Banana Squash, Jarrahdale Pumpkin, Kabocha, Lakota, Rouge Vif D’Etampes (also known as the Cinderella Pumpkin), Galeux d’Eysines (also known as the Peanut Pumpkin), and Marina Di Chioggia. This species also includes giant pumpkins, some of which can reach well over 2000 pounds! The giant pumpkin varieties are derived from Dill’s Atlantic Giant, developed by Howard Dill, a Canadian pumpkin breeder.  A Black Futsu squash, a variety of the C. moschata species. Cucurbita moschata  A Tromboncino squash, a C. moschata species. C. moschata is a commonly grown species in the United States and includes the Butternut and Cheese varieties such as Long Island cheese and Musquee de Provence. It also includes Seminole, Black Futsu, and Tromboncino (Zucchino Rampicante) varieties. The tromboncino varieties are unique in that you can eat them when young and tender, like zucchini, or allow them to mature and eat them like winter squash. C. moschata is generally used to make canned pumpkin pie mix in the United States. If you live in an area with squash vine borers, this species also tends to be more resistant than other species since it has a solid, not hollow, stem. Cucurbita pepo  A Black Beauty Zucchini, a variety in the C. pepo species. The species C. pepo includes many well-known varieties including winter and summer squash. Winter squash varieties include Acorn, Sweet Dumpling, Delicata, Spaghetti, and pumpkins commonly used for pies or Jack-o’-lanterns. Pumpkins in this species include Connecticut Field, New England Pie, Winter Luxury, Early Giant, Big Max, and Howden. The hulless seed varieties, such as Kakai, are also C. pepo. Summer squash varieties include Cocozelle, Crookneck, Straightneck, Scallop, Patty Pan, Pool Ball, and the many Zucchini varieties. C. pepo also includes most non-edible, small, decorative gourds, including the winged and warted gourds and the small gourd-type pumpkins, such as Jack-be-Little. One exception is the larger gourds such as Birdhouse, Bottle, Dinosaur, and Caveman Club which belong to a different genus, Lagenaria. C. pepo is unfortunately very susceptible to the squash vine borer due to its hollow stems. A classic field pumpkin (left) and decorative, non-edible gourd (right). Both are different varieties of the same C. pepo species. Cross-PollinationYou do not have to worry about cross-pollination in any plant unless you are interested in saving seed (except corn since you eat the seed). Pollination by another variety of the same species will only affect the next generation if you save the seed and plant it the following season. It will not affect the fruit (i.e. tomato) of the plant. If you are interested in saving seed the general rule is that varieties in the same species can cross-pollinate. For example, if you plant acorn squash and a sugar pie pumpkin, they are both C. pepo and likely will cross-pollinate as they are insect-pollinated and have separate male and female flowers. However, it is unlikely that a C. pepo variety, like acorn squash, will cross with a C. maxima variety, such as a Hubbard squash since they are two different species. Squash and pumpkins will also not cross with melons, including cantaloupe and watermelon, or cucumbers, as they are also different species. If you wish to grow multiple varieties of pumpkins and squash from the same species, and you also wish to save seed, you will either need to separate varieties by a half to one mile or net the plants to prevent insect pollination and hand pollinate.  Multiple varieties of C. pepo gourds, many of which were derived from volunteers that were cross-pollinated the previous year. References and Resources
 A good pumpkin and squash year! Deer FencingNothing frustrates a gardener more than wildlife eating your plants. Some of the biggest complaints involve deer, rodents, rabbits, chipmunks, squirrels, and groundhogs. Where I live, we seem to have very few small mammals (except for voles), probably due to large numbers of predators such as foxes, coyotes, and birds of prey. We rarely see rabbits, chipmunks, squirrels, or groundhogs (I do not think we have ever seen a groundhog on our property). What we do have a problem with, in central Wisconsin, however, is deer. During our first year living here, we were involved in three car accidents, all caused by deer. If you spend any time Googling “deer fencing,” you will find many varied opinions. Most of those solutions have not worked for us. I can tell you what has not worked for us in central Wisconsin and what currently seems to be working (fingers crossed it continues to work). We have a large fenced-in garden, about a half-acre in size, which makes it more challenging to keep deer out, mostly due to cost. A large garden, especially in a rural setting, also makes it easier for deer to jump since they have plenty of room outside and inside to jump. Our garden contains our vegetable garden, fruit trees, wine and table grapes, raspberries, blackberries, blueberries, and rhubarb. If you do not want to read the entire post about our fencing journey here is a list of what did not work for us: a six-foot electric fence, fishing line around a 6-foot electric fence, an 8-foot non-electric fence, and a five-foot outer fence around an eight-foot fence spaced 5-feet apart. Here is what worked (so far): two eight-foot fences spaced five feet apart. Electric FenceWe started with a six-foot electric fence that was solar-powered. We knew a deer could easily jump this height, but our research suggested that the deer would nose the fence first. After being shocked the deer would then ignore the fence. We were also limited by budget and could not afford a taller fence. This fence worked well for several years until it suddenly did not. Once the deer learned there were tasty plants inside the fence they continued to jump it. However, we mostly had a problem with the deer jumping the fence in the fall to eat all the brassicas made sweet by frost. Eventually, however, they started jumping it more frequently. We would put netting over high-priority crops and spray liquid fence, but these were temporary solutions. Our first deer fence, a six foot electric fence with chicken wire at the bottom to reduce small mammal entry. Fishing LineWe read that if you string fishing line around your garden the deer will not be able to see it but will feel it walking past and get scared. So, we strung fishing line around our entire garden, outside our 6-foot fence. For us, all the deer did was break the line and then jump the fence. Maybe this would work better if you used a stronger fishing line, but we decided instead to increase the height of our fence. T-Post ExtendersWe decided to upgrade our original six-foot fence with T-post extenders from The Fence Department (Extend-A-Post) to turn it into an eight-foot fence. We removed the solar-powered electric unit, since at this point, it had stopped working anyway. The problem with T-posts was that they only went two feet into the ground and we could not put much tension on the lines because the T-posts, especially with the extenders on top, were not stable enough at the corners even with anchors. We had lots of sagging lines and the deer were able to jump the fence. We hoped that if we fixed the sagging lines to make it consistently eight-feet high this would solve our problems. At this point, we also upgraded to an eight-foot gate. Rather than make our own we purchased a kit from Deer Busters, which was easy to install (although it does involve concreting in the posts), but the highest they sell is eight feet tall, which as we discovered, is not sufficient to keep deer out.  T-post extenders can be added to T-posts to add an additional two feet to the height of your fence. They are not very stable so cannot hold much tension, particularly at the corners. Reinforced 4x4 CornersTo solve our sagging fence problems my husband decided to make reinforced corners out of 4x4s so we could put more tension on the wire and eliminate the worst of the sagging. We bought 12-foot pressure-treated 4x4s and cemented three into the ground four feet deep with 2x4 reinforcements between each 4x4. The corners turned out beautifully, and we eliminated the worst of the sagging, however, the deer continued to jump the fence easily.  Reinforced corners of our original eight-foot deer fence which allowed tensioning of the wire to reduce sagging of the deer netting. Double FenceMultiple times I read deer can jump high or far but not both. Since we had one deer that insisted on jumping our 8-foot fence every night and eating all my cabbages, we decided to add on a second outer fence. From what I read you only needed a short second fence (some people even claim two, four-foot fences spaced five feet apart are sufficient), so we rounded up all our extra T-posts and made a second fence using plastic snow fencing, approximately five foot high around our eight-foot fence with a five-foot gap in between the two fences. Unfortunately, the deer continued to jump both fences every night, eating up my peas, beans, and the rest of my brassicas. I should also mention that normally liquid fence works well for us to keep deer damage at bay but this year (2024) was one of the wettest on record with massive amounts of rain (20 inches in both May and June). The rain washed away the liquid fence spray as fast as we could apply it. At this point we were second-guessing whether we should have just hired a company to install a 12-foot welded wire fence, but earlier quotes had been $5000 for materials alone plus the cost of installation. We assumed that even if we could find someone to install a fence, the cost would be $10,000-$15,000 which was not in the budget. However, we had probably spent at least $6,000 on fences that did not work so in hindsight maybe paying for a 12-foot fence installation would have been preferable.  Eight foot tall gate from Deer Busters. Tensioners at each corner to reduce sagging. Double Eight Foot FencesSince we had already bought the snow fencing, we decided to try one more time to build a double fence, but this time we made the second one eight feet tall to match our first one. This is one of the recommendations by the Minnesota Department of natural resources (see link for other recommendations). We found 10-foot T-posts (not cheap) at Home Depot, so we removed the snow fencing from the shorter T-posts and replaced them with the bigger ones. Between the shorter and taller second fence, my poor husband pounded in about 80 T-posts over a two-week period. We then re-assembled the snow fencing on the taller T-posts and added deer netting to fill in the gap below. We also had to rig up fencing along the gate but this had to be removable at the bottom to enter the garden (we used step-in posts). Thus far, the deer have not managed to jump both eight-foot fences, and hopefully, this will continue in the years to come.  While double 8 foot fences appears to work well to keep deer out, it is not the most attractive fencing option. This is the gate where we needed to make the fencing movable for access. In the future we may upgrade to two eight foot gates. ConclusionBy the time we put in two eight-foot fences, we had lived on our property for eight years. In hindsight, I wished we had saved up money to have a company install a 12-foot welded wire fence from the beginning. It would probably have cost the same amount we spent over the years on temporary solutions, plus it would look more attractive than two 8-foot fences cobbled together with T-posts, T-post extenders, and multiple types of netting. One piece of advice I can give is to deal with infrastructure first. Get your fencing, sheds, animal coops, etc. in place and make them properly, before you go all out on fruit trees, vegetables, or animals. Someday, maybe I will take that advice! References and Resources
Raised Beds Why Grow in Raised Beds?I love my raised beds and usually add 1 to 2 more every year to my garden. There are several advantages to using raised beds to grow vegetables.
 Raised beds made out of untreated 2x10s with 2x4s for support (not placed in their final position, at least 3 feet between raised beds is recommended). A second layer of 2x10s can be added to increase depth. These raised beds have lasted 7 years in central Wisconsin, even with untreated wood. MaterialsWhat materials to build your raised beds with is a hotly debated topic. I prefer untreated wood, although I would be comfortable using treated wood today as copper is used as a preservative rather than arsenic. A study by Oregon State University (4) has found that only one inch of soil along the edge of the bed shows increases in copper levels, and that increase was small (20 ppm over untreated raised beds). We started with untreated lumber as it was cheaper than treated and even using untreated 2x10 boards our raised beds have lasted about 7 years. We built our first raised beds in 2017 and only this year (2024) have we started to replace some of the sides. We bought an Alaskan sawmill this spring and own a red pine plantation that needs thinning, so my husband has been milling 6x6s to build new raised beds and replace our older raised beds. The big advantage of 6x6s is that you can more comfortably sit on the edge of the bed to plant or weed. The gold standard for raised beds is cedar wood. I would love raised beds made out of cedar 6x6s but cedar wood is unfortunately extremely expensive. If you are only going to build one or two raised beds you could consider cedar depending on your budget. However, I have 19 raised beds and the cost of cedar is unrealistic. There are also other rot-resistant wood types, such as redwood, but they can be hard to source and expensive. Metal-raised beds, usually steel galvanized with zinc to prevent rusting, are becoming more popular. Although zinc can be toxic in large amounts it seems unlikely that enough would leach into a raised bed to cause toxicity issues. We also use galvanized food and water containers for our chickens and ducks and galvanized water tanks for livestock have been used for a long time. Therefore, I feel a galvanized metal raised bed is unlikely to cause health issues. Furthermore, I have heard good things about some of the metal raised bed kits (such as Epic Gardening Birdies Metal Raised Garden Beds[6]) you can buy regarding longevity and ease of construction, but I have no experience with them myself. If you decide to buy a galvanized livestock tank to use as a raised bed instead of a raised bed kit, just be sure to add drainage holes and ensure it is tall enough to accommodate the roots of your plants. Concrete (cinder) blocks are often used because they are easily available, relatively cheap, and heavy so no extra supports are needed. I would not use concrete blocks because, in addition to cement, sand, and gravel they also contain fly ash which is a byproduct of burning coal. However, this will likely only leach into the soil in large amounts if the integrity of the block is compromised. If you use concrete blocks, in good condition, this may be an acceptable choice for a raised bed. You can also choose to line your concrete blocks with a food-safe plastic liner, however, many people do not like growing food in plastic, even food-safe plastic. Materials I do not recommend are railroad ties, due to the creosote used as a preservative which is also a carcinogen. I also see old tires being used locally as raised beds, but this is not recommended since tires are made of petroleum-based products. Rubber degrades with exposure to UV light from the sun which will then leach petroleum chemicals into your soil.  New raised beds made in 2024 of 6x6s we milled on our property from red pine trees. Ignore the unhealthy melon plants, massive amounts of rain made this the worst gardening year I have ever experienced. SizeA typical raised bed size is often 4x8 feet. The first raised beds we ever built were five feet wide. This was too wide to easily reach the center of the bed for planting and weeding. I suggest limiting your raised beds to no more than four feet across, but three feet is also acceptable, particularly if you are on the short side. The distance in length does not matter although I suspect eight feet is often used because wood is readily available in eight-foot sections, and it is easier to transport. There is no reason however that you cannot make longer raised beds, you would just need support along the way. Many people also get creative and make raised beds in different shapes to make meandering pathways between them. I am unfortunately not that creative and line mine up in two rows with each bed running north-south. My older raised beds were made using 2x10s so they were roughly 9.25 inches high or, if we added two layers, for example, to grow asparagus with deep roots, were 18.5 inches high. These were a great height but made it difficult to sit on the edge given the sides were only 1.5 inches wide. Our new raised beds made with 6x6s are currently only one layer high, so 6 inches (these are actually 6 inches high since we milled them ourselves, if you buy 6x6s in a lumber yard they will likely be 5.5” unless you can find rough sawn wood). We plan to slowly add more layers of 6x6s as we have the time to mill more logs. Ideally, a raised bed is 12-18 inches tall, but I found having the wider 6x6s raised beds easier to work with than the taller 2-inch-wide boards so am willing to sacrifice height temporarily until we mill more 6x6s. Even a 6-inch raised bed provides advantages to growing directly in the ground. As far as spacing is concerned, I like 3-4 feet between each raised bed. I found that 2 feet is too small to easily work in between raised beds.  We drilled holes and used large 12 inch spikes to hold together our raised beds made with 6x6s. Buy or Build?Whether you buy or build your raised beds comes down to two different factors: budget and DIY ability. We chose to build our raised beds because I wanted quite a few of them which made buying them too expensive, and my husband and I are reasonably handy. We already had the tools needed (saws, drills, etc.) to build wooden raised beds. If you do not already have tools available weigh the cost of buying a raised bed kit with the cost of buying or renting tools plus lumber to build your own. Many hardware stores will also cut lumber to size for you so that could eliminate the need to buy a saw. When we built our raised beds with 2x10s we used screws to hold the boards together with a 2x4 at the corners. When we used 6x6s we pre-drilled holes through the 6x6s and then pounded a long spike through to hold them in place. In general, screws are preferable to nails because if you make a mistake, you can easily remove the screw. One thing we did not add to our raised beds is hardware cloth lining the bottom. This is used to prevent rodents from burrowing underneath and eating the roots. This has not been a problem for us but if you have high rodent pressure in your area I would recommend it.  A raised bed made out of 2x10s with a second layer added for extra height. We used this raised bed to grow asparagus. SoilWhen starting a raised bed from scratch I like to combine peat moss (make sure you buy the sustainable Canadian peat moss), topsoil or garden soil (about 50%), compost/composted manure, and sometimes a little sand. We usually get our topsoil/garden soil delivered as it is cheaper than bags if you need large amounts. Our compost is either our own (kitchen scraps mixed with used pine shavings from our chickens and ducks that have been composted sufficiently to reduce any pathogen load) or compost in bags we get from our local home improvement store. Sometimes peat moss is not recommended because it can cause your bed to dry out too much. I add no more than half a bag to my 4x8 foot raised beds and have not had a problem. After a raised bed is established, I usually add an inch or two of compost each year to maintain the fertility of the soil. I also grow many plants in pots and when I need to refresh the soil in my pots, I often dump the leftover potting soil into my raised beds (assuming no diseases were present). Potting soil usually has good drainage so this can also increase the health of your raised bed soil. The cost of filling a raised bed can be as expensive or more expensive than the cost of a raised bed itself, so be sure to add up the total cost before you build too many raised beds you cannot afford to fill. This is why we have slowly added 1 or 2 raised beds per year rather than making them all at once. ConclusionI love raised bed gardening and firmly believe the advantages outweigh the time and cost required to build or buy them. The vegetables in my raised beds routinely outperform my other vegetables in both output and health. If you wish to learn more about raised bed gardening, I encourage you to read or listen to Joe Gardener’s blog/podcast (links below) which is very comprehensive, and check out the other resources provided. References and Resources
 Baby persimmon tree just starting to get its first set of true leaves. Starting Persimmon Trees from SeedI purchased fifty Early Golden Persimmon seeds, from Perfect Circle Farm in late winter of 2024. Early Golden is a cold-hardy American persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) variety. Not surprisingly American persimmons are native to the United States from much of the east coast to the mid-west. According to BONAP they are not native to Wisconsin (where I live) but are found nearby in Iowa and Illinois. They are also native to similar and even more northern latitudes in New York. I chose the Early Golden variety because it is supposed to be hardy to zone 4, where I live. Like many tree seeds in northern climates, persimmon seeds require cold stratification. You can keep them moist, wrapped in a paper towel, or sphagnum moss, in a plastic bag in the refrigerator. They need a 60–90-day stratification period. After stratifying, I moved the seeds to a heat mat on March 1st, keeping them moist. I checked them every couple of days and first noticed that some seeds looked like they started germinating on March 16th. I then put the seeds in nursery pots designed for trees (see below) and waited much longer than expected for them to emerge (maybe I was mistaken about their earlier germination).  Persimmon seed just starting to form the root. After GerminationI bought some deep nursery pots on Amazon that are 4-5 inches wide at the top and 12 inches tall. These types of pots are used for trees to accommodate long tap roots. As soon as I noticed germination I moved my seeds to potting soil in the nursery pots and covered them with a thin layer of soil. I moved them off the heat, and until they start sprouting (seeds put their roots out first, before their first leaves) they do not need light, just moisture. I waited until our days warmed up in late spring before I moved the pots outside, but it was not until June 26th that I first saw seedlings emerge from the soil. I was surprised because I assumed the seeds were not viable as it took so long to see growth. So far about 8 have sprouted (update, about 3 dozen have sprouted by 7/24/24). When the seedlings get big enough (maybe 6 inches) I will transplant them. I plan on putting these trees in our fields, partly for our use but mostly for wildlife.  Persimmon seedling just starting to emerge. Growing ConditionsAmerican persimmon trees prefer full sun and moist but well-drained slightly acidic soil. The trees get large so they should be planted 30-50 feet apart. Make sure you dig a hole at least twice as deep and wide as the pot and fertilization should not be necessary unless you are planting in poor soil. These trees do require a second tree of a different variety for pollination. If these trees survive their first few winters, I will buy another persimmon variety for pollination. Other varieties hardy to zone 4 that would work as pollinators include Yates, Garretson, and Elmo. Prok is another variety that can be used as a pollinator, hardy to zone 5. All these trees, including Early Golden, can also be purchased from Stark Brothers Nursery (and probably others) if you do not wish to start from seed. I have also found American Persimmon trees at my local home improvement store in the spring.  Early Golden Persimmon seeds with quarter shown for size. Persimmon UsesPersimmons must be fully ripe, or they will be tannic and very astringent. When ripe they are often eaten fresh and used in various desserts and breads or dried and eaten like prunes. Many animals also eat persimmon fruit including deer and birds, and even skunks, raccoons, opossums, and foxes. References
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AuthorIn 2016, my family and I moved from the New York City area to small town Wisconsin. Our move, this website and blog (and our previous Etsy store) is the result of our desire over the past several years to simplify our lives, increase our quality of life, reconnect with nature, and enjoy a more self-sufficient life. I grew up as a country kid in central Pennsylvania working on my grandfather's fruit farm and as a corn "de-tassler" at a local seed farm. My background is in biology where my love of nature originated. I am a former research scientist and professor and have now transitioned to a part-time stay-at-home mom, self-employed tutor, and small business owner. Thank you for taking the time to check out my site. Archives
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