Beet Varieties
Beets (Beta vulgaris), also known as beetroots, are the root portion of the beet plant, although the leaves are also eaten. Other cultivars under Beta vulgaris include sugar beets, mangelwurzel or fodder beets, and Swiss chard, which is basically beet greens without the root swelling. Here, I cover some of the main varieties of beets (not Swiss chard), including whether they are hybrid (F1) or open-pollinated (OP) varieties, their days to maturity, the color of the beetroot, and any other information that may be interesting, including any disease-resistance, when known. If you wish to learn more about how to grow beets, please see my other blog post (coming soon). Days to maturity in the chart usually refer to mature roots, unless otherwise stated. If you prefer baby leaves or baby beets, the number of days is closer to 35-40 days. Disease resistance in the chart is given as abbreviations. The list of abbreviations is listed below:
BLS – Bacterial Leaf Spot CLS - Cercospora Leaf Spot DM – Downy Mildew PM – Powdery Mildew RRCR - Rhizoctonia Root and Crown Rot
References and Resources
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Growing EggplantsEggplants (Solanum melongena), also known as aubergines, are in the nightshade family (Solanaceae) along with tomatoes, peppers, and potatoes. The most well-known eggplants have the scientific name of Solanum melongena, although another less common species is S. aethiopicum (also known as S. integrifolium or S. gilo depending on where the eggplant originates). S. aethoiopicum is also called Ethiopian eggplant, bitter tomato, because they often look like a cross between a ripe tomato and an eggplant, or Pumpkin on a Stick, because some varieties look like miniature pumpkins. For more information on eggplant varieties, including their days to maturity, color and shape, origin, and more, please see my previous blog post. Eggplants are used as vegetables, even though they are technically fruits, similar to tomatoes and peppers. The most popular eggplant varieties in the United States are dark purple, bell-shaped fruits that are Italian eggplant cultivars. Elongated purple fruits also exist, usually of Asian descent, coming from Japan, China, Thailand, and India. However small, round eggplants, mini bell-shaped or elongated fruits, and those of various colors, including white, green, striped, and orange, also exist. Growing ConditionsEggplants, like tomatoes and peppers, prefer long, hot summers, although they grow quite well in northern climates by starting seeds early or buying transplants. Some newer hybrids have shorter days to maturity, but most eggplants need 60-90 days after transplanting to fully mature. If you are unfamiliar with starting plants from seed, please see my earlier blog post on “Starting Seeds.” Start seeds 6-10 weeks before transplanting outside, preferably on a heat mat. Seeds germinate at 80-90°F and grow best at 70°F after the seedlings emerge. Harden off the plants by reducing the temperature and exposing them to partial sun and wind. Once fully hardened off, transplant them into a raised bed or in-ground garden. I usually transplant my starts about 2 weeks after my average last frost date, usually the end of May to the beginning of June. If it is still cooler when transplanting, the plants will benefit from a frost cover. This will also keep insects at bay. The cover will need to be removed once the plant blossoms so pollination can occur (unless you are growing a parthenocarpic variety, which does not require pollination to set fruit. Space plants 18-24” inches apart in rows 30-36 inches apart. Because I grow my eggplants in raised beds, I do not use rows and instead plant them about 18” apart, sometimes going as small as 12”. This works okay for me because I keep my soil amended with compost and composted manure, so there are plenty of nutrients for the plants. Eggplants require fertile soil that is well-drained. Similar to other Solanum plants, they do not like wet feet. I always grow my eggplants in raised beds to ensure the best quality soil and proper drainage. If you are going to use chemical fertilizer, make sure it does not contain too much nitrogen, as this will encourage vegetative growth but not fruit set. A fertilizer designed for peppers and tomatoes also works well for eggplants. Many eggplant varieties are prolific enough that staking the plants is helpful. Some varieties are also more compact, so they do well in containers. Most varieties of eggplants do not grow bigger than about 2-3 feet tall and will still do well in containers. Pests and DiseaseEggplants are fairly disease and pest hardy, but flea beetles can be a problem, particularly when the plants are small. Colorado potato beetles also like eggplant, although not as much as potato plants. These bugs are easy to pick off but also check for orange eggs on the underside of the leaves and remove those as well. I have problems with slugs eating the fruit wherever it touches the ground. Staking the plants to keep most of the fruit off the ground is helpful. Lastly, I occasionally have aphid problems. Usually, spraying them off with strong hose water is sufficient to keep them at bay. One year I had such a problem with aphids I eventually pulled the plant because the aphids kept returning whether I sprayed them with water or even insecticidal soap. Eggplants can also be susceptible to diseases, such as Verticillium wilt. Rotating crops as much as possible can help reduce the incidence of disease. Some eggplant varieties are also disease-resistant. Harvest and UsageOnce mature, harvest the eggplant regularly, and the plant will continue to set more fruit. Eggplants are mature when the fruit is glossy, and the flesh yields slightly when pressed. If over-mature, the fruit can become bitter and seedy. If the eggplant has lost its shine, it is overripe. Eggplant is usually cooked, but some varieties can be eaten raw. Eggplants are commonly used in Italian cooking, such as Eggplant parmesan, in Asian cooking, in stir-fries and curries, and in Mediterranean cooking, such as Greek Moussaka. Eggplant generally cannot be canned, although Ball has a recipe for eggplant puttanesca (found in “The All New Ball Book of Canning and Preserving”), which is quite good. You can freeze eggplant after slicing it into 1/3-inch pieces and blanching for approximately four minutes in water containing ½ cup lemon juice per gallon of water. The lemon juice helps prevent the flesh from oxidizing and turning dark-colored. ConclusionAlthough eggplants are not my favorite to eat, I do enjoy eggplant parmesan a few times per year. I always grow at least one Italian-type and one Asian-type each season. Compared to tomatoes, they are much more disease-resistant, are lower maintenance, and take up less space in the garden. References and Resources
Eggplant Varieties
​Eggplants, also known as aubergine, belong to the nightshade family along with peppers, potatoes, and tomatoes. The most common eggplants have the scientific name of Solanum melongena although another less common species is S. aethiopicum (also known as S. integrifolium or S. gilo depending on where the eggplant originates). S. aethoiopicum is also called Ethiopian eggplant, bitter tomato, because they often look like a cross between a ripe tomato and an eggplant, or Pumpkin on a Stick, because some varieties look like miniature pumpkins.
​This post discusses the various eggplant types, which people categorize into two major groups: Asian-type (often Chinese or Japanese in origin) or Italian-type (which can originate in Italy or many other places). Asian eggplants are often long and slender with tender flesh and thin skin. People commonly use these types for stir-fries, curries, and sautéing. Italian eggplants are often bell-shaped and used in heartier Italian dishes such as eggplant parmesan. In the chart below, I list whether the variety is open-pollinated or a hybrid, how many days it takes to produce ripe fruit (starting from transplant date), the color and shape of the eggplant, where it originated or its type, and any other additional notes I find interesting. For information on “How to Grow Eggplants,â€
Leek Varieties
There are a surprisingly large number of different leek varieties. In the chart below, in addition to the variety name, I also list whether they are open-pollinated or an F1 hybrid, the typical harvest period (summer, fall, or winter), disease resistance, if any, and any other information that may be of interest. Please note, whether a leek is a summer, fall, or winter leek, or a leek that will overwinter, very much depends on the climate where you live. I live in Central Wisconsin, so leeks that may overwinter in warmer winter areas are less likely to survive the winter in my area. I attempted to compile a comprehensive list of varieties commonly available from seed suppliers primarily based in the north (these are the suppliers with which I am most familiar). Some varieties may be older ones that can be harder to find. If you have a favorite leek variety that you love that is missing from my list, please let me know, and I will add it. If you wish to explore varieties that include people’s real-world experiences with them, check out “Vegetable Varieties for Gardeners,â€
Growing Leeks Summer leeks growing in my raised beds. IntroductionLeeks, like onions, shallots, garlic, and chives, belong to the Allium genus. The scientific name of leeks is Allium ampeloprasum variety porrum, or sometimes called Allium porrum. Leeks grow with a round stem and flat leaves, but generally do not form a bulb. They taste similar to an onion but are milder. Leeks are white at the bottom, where they are protected from the sun, then turn lighter green until the leaves are darker green to a blue-green color. Leeks have been used since ancient Egyptian times, likely originating in Mesopotamia. The Romans brought leeks to Britain and Western Europe, where they have been cultivated since the early Middle Ages. What Type of Leek Should You Grow?
Once you have decided on whether you want to grow a summer, fall, or winter leek, you need to decide on a variety. Some leeks are short and fat, others are longer and thinner. Some have disease resistance; others have very little. There is a good selection of open-pollinated leek varieties as well as newer hybrid varieties. If you are trying to decide what variety of leek to grow, please see my blog post on “Leek Varieties” where I list the most common leek varieties, what type they are (summer, fall, or winter), days to maturity, hybrid versus open-pollinated, and more. When deciding on a new variety of vegetable to try, I also often consult a citizen science project called "Vegetable Varieties for Gardeners," coordinated by Cornell University, in which average home gardeners can rate and comment on different varieties. Some varieties do not have an entry, but many common varieties have information on how well they grew in different parts of the country and under specific conditions.  Leek and onion seedlings under grow lights. How to Grow LeeksLeeks, like onions, can take 100 to 150 days to mature, although many less cold-hardy summer leeks are ready sooner, in 80-100 days. Leeks can be easily grown from seeds, either by direct seeding or transplanting after seeding in pots; or you can often buy transplants as well. Leeks are easy to grow, but they are heavy feeders and require good-quality soil with a pH between 6.0-7.0 and high in nutrients and organic material. If your soil is poor, you can add compost or composted manure in the spring before planting or in the fall, the year before. If you are starting seeds in pots (see my blog posts on “The Basics of Seed Starting” and “Growing Great Onions” for more information). ), sow 8-12 weeks before the last frost. Thin if necessary and transplant outside after hardening off when they are roughly 8 inches tall and as thick as a pencil. I always have too many plants in my pots and end up transplanting them when they are much smaller than a pencil; they still grow fine. You can also trim them as they grow in pots, so they fit better under the grow lights and use the cut-off parts as you would chives. The roots can also be trimmed somewhat when transplanting them to make them easier to plant. To transplant, I use a dibble (see my previous blog post on "My Favorite Gardening Tools") to make holes about 6 inches deep and plant the leeks deep (only 2-3” need to remain above ground), roughly 6 inches apart. If you wish, plant them in rows 12 inches wide, but I plant them in my raised beds approximately 6 inches apart in all directions with no designated rows. You can also create a furrow, approximately 6 inches deep, if you do not have a dibble. If you do not plant them deep, you can instead hill your leeks with soil or compost a few times as they grow, which helps produce longer, white stalks. It is recommended to fertilize with a well-balanced fertilizer, such as 10-10-10, mid-summer.  I use a dibble tool to plant onions, leeks, and garlic. Leeks have shallow roots, so it is best not to allow the top few inches of soil to get too dry. I prefer to use soaker hoses or drip tape to water, as this keeps the water off the leaves and reduces the chances of fungal diseases. Generally, an inch of rain per week is sufficient, depending on the temperature and your soil composition (sandy soil requires more watering and clay soil, less). Because leeks have shallow roots, you want to be careful when weeding with a hoe or cultivator so that you do not dig too deeply and damage the roots. Mulching, with grass clippings (no herbicides!) or straw between the leeks and between rows, will reduce the amount of weeding you need to do. Pests and DiseaseThe only problems I have had growing leeks (and onions) are onion thrips (Thrips tabaci). These tiny insects are usually a problem in hot, dry summers, but they rarely kill a plant. If you find tiny silver-white spots on your leeks or onions, this is the damage caused by thrips feeding. Another pest problem, which I have not experienced, includes the onion maggot (Hylemya antiqua), which feeds on the roots and stems and can stunt the growth of the leek, causing wilting and yellowing. Various diseases can affect leeks, including botrytis leaf spot, downy mildew, pink root, purple blotch, smudge, and white rot. I have never experienced these diseases, but some leek varieties, particularly F1 hybrids, are resistant. Harvest and StorageYou can harvest leeks as you need them. If you are growing summer leeks, you should harvest any remaining leeks before a hard frost. Leeks will not die back like onions and should remain green until harvest. If my summer leeks start bolting, I usually take that as a sign that I should harvest them all soon after. Winter leeks can be mulched and hilled with soil if you wish to overwinter them or use them during the winter. I generally use leaves and frost cover to mulch and overwinter my leeks. Leeks can be stored for several weeks in a refrigerator (they will continue to grow very slowly, but too much growth reduces quality), ideally in a plastic bag with a damp paper towel around the roots. I like to buy food-safe, 5-gallon brine bags to store my leeks in, as they are generally too long to fit in a standard grocery store bag, even with the tops trimmed. If you have a separate refrigerator that you can keep colder, at ~32°F with high humidity, then the leeks may store for 2-3 months.  Freshly harvested leeks. Preserving LeeksThere are two methods for preserving leeks. The recommended method is to dehydrate, although they can also be frozen with some caveats. Canning is not recommended for two reasons. First, the high heat required for canning will make the leeks mushy. Second, because of the way leeks grow, they can have soil stuck between the layers. This increases the bacterial load, potentially including the bacterium that causes botulism, making them unsafe for canning. Although you can freeze leeks, it is not recommended as they can develop a strong, bitter flavor. I have frozen leeks and have not noticed any bitter taste, but I also use them in soups or sautés that may mask bitter flavors. They do get very mushy once thawed, which can be unappetizing. Therefore, if you have an excess of leeks, it is recommended that you dehydrate them. If you are new to dehydrating, please see my previous blog post. Briefly, leeks are very easy to dehydrate as they do not require blanching (some sources do recommend blanching before freezing or drying). To dehydrate leeks, I wash and remove any dead outer leaves. I cut off the root end and the dark green leaves, leaving the white and light green portion. I like to cut my leeks in half lengthwise to wash out any soil between the layers. I then slice the leek halves into roughly half-inch portions. Dehydrate at ~125° until dry, usually 8-24 hours. Using LeeksUsually, the white to light green portions of the leek are used. The darker green portion, although edible, can be bitter, fibrous, and tough. Some recipes, like the classic cock-a-leekie soup, may have you boil the darker green portions to make the broth. In addition to cock-a-leekie soup, leeks are also traditionally used in potato leek soup, egg dishes, such as omelets and frittatas, braised leeks, pasta dishes, and more. Leeks can also be used as a replacement for onions or shallots in most recipes, although they do tend to break down and cook faster, so they should be added later in most recipes. ConclusionsFor me, leeks are one of the easiest vegetables to grow. They take up little room in a garden and are one of my favorite vegetables to cook. I was always intimidated to start leeks, onions, and shallots from seed, but as long as your seed is new for that year, they are very easy to start. I also love that leeks can be overwintered, providing you with fresh vegetables in early spring. References and Resources
 Fermenting Hard Apple CiderIn the United States, hard cider refers to fermented alcoholic cider, and sweet cider refers to fresh, non-alcoholic cider. In Europe and the United Kingdom, any reference to cider refers to fermented cider, while fresh, sweet cider is called apple juice (if you live/have lived in Europe/UK, please correct me if I am wrong). In the United States, apple juice is cooked and filtered to be clear, while sweet cider is usually unfiltered and not cooked, though in most states it must be pasteurized for food safety reasons if sold commercially. Pasteurization does not significantly change the taste of fresh cider, but makes it safer to drink, particularly for the very young, very old, or immunocompromised individuals. Fresh sweet cider can be made with many different types of apples, many of them sweet and/or acidic. Hard cider is best made from a blend of sweet, acidic, and tannic apples, but to be honest, you should make it with whatever apples or juice you can get your hands on. If you are interested in learning more about what types of apples are good for cider, please visit my blog post on “Apple Varieties for Northern Climates,” which includes charts on cider-specific apple varieties, crab apple varieties, many of which are also good for cider, and apples for fresh eating and cooking, which also includes many varieties used in cider, particularly sweet cider. The first step in making hard cider is to make fresh cider (or buy it), which you can then ferment using either naturally occurring wild yeast or purchased commercial yeast. Please see my previous blog post, “How to Make Sweet Apple Cider,” for information on grinding and pressing apples to make fresh cider. This blog post will start at the fermentation step of the process. If you want more information on fermenting in general, please see my blog post on “The Basics of Fermenting Wine”. Although this post is on wine, most of the topics are relevant for cider as well. Many people prefer to use wild yeast, allowing whatever natural yeasts to colonize the cider and ferment the sugars. I prefer to choose my specific type of yeast, as different varieties can impart different flavors and have different pH, temperature, and alcohol tolerances. I also prefer dry cider (little to no residual sugar), so I want a yeast with high alcohol tolerance to ensure the sugar is completely fermented. If you allow wild yeasts to ferment your cider, you do not need to add yeast, but you may want to add pectic enzyme to help reduce haziness and yeast nutrients to boost fermentation. You can also add tannins if you are using mostly sweet apples. If you use commercially available yeast, you may want to treat the fresh cider with potassium metabisulfite to reduce the chances that wild yeast and bacteria contaminate the ferment. Potassium metabisulfite also reduces oxidation, which helps protect the color and flavor/aroma and reduces the chance of spoilage. Once potassium metabisulfite is added, you must wait at least 24 hours before pitching the commercially purchased yeast. I started fermenting hard cider only a few years ago, but I have tried several different types of yeast in an attempt to find one that we liked the best. I have been limited in the past by the number of apples I was harvesting, but now enough of our trees have matured to the point where we have extra to make small batches of both sweet and hard cider. Yeast SelectionAs mentioned above, many home-brewed ciders are fermented with natural, wild yeasts. As a trained microbiologist, I much prefer to pitch a commercial yeast rather than depend on a wild yeast, which by its nature has more unknowns. Thus far, I have tried several different types of yeast. In 2023, I only had enough cider for a single one-gallon batch, and I used Fermentis SafAle S-04 dry ale yeast, which ferments ideally between 59-68°F and has an alcohol tolerance of 9-11%. This yeast made a drinkable cider, but I could detect a chemical aftertaste. By 2024, I had read that many people prefer to use wine yeast, specifically Champagne-type yeast, so I compared the SafAle S-04 to the very common Champagne wine yeast, Lalvin EC-1118. Unfortunately, the SafAle cider ended up extremely sulfurous during the fermentation. This was likely my fault because I had accidentally added too much yeast nutrients to that batch. However, with enough racking and time, most of the sulfur odor went away. Both ciders turned out well, but I wasn’t completely sold on either. The EC-1118 yeast is a vigorous fermenter, and I felt the cider had less flavor than the SafAle, likely from so much off-gassing of volatile compounds that give the fruity smell and flavor to cider. This year (2025), I tried another wine yeast, Red Star Premier Côte des Blanc, because a brewing supply company did a taste test of ciders brewed with different yeasts and found that Côte des Blanc, which is also their best-selling yeast for cider, was overwhelmingly a favorite. My Côte des Blanc cider is currently clarifying in a carboy, but I hope to bottle it in the next month or two and will provide an update once it is properly carbonated and aged. Testing Your Cider Before FermentationIf you wish to know the sugar level of your cider, you will need either a hydrometer with a test jar or a graduated cylinder. A hydrometer is used to measure the specific gravity before and after fermentation. Specific gravity, also known as relative density, is a measure of how dense a solution is compared to distilled water. For example, the more sugar a solution has, the denser it is compared to water and the higher its specific gravity. The specific gravity of pure water is 1.0. Any solution higher than 1.0 is denser, and any solution less than 1.0 is less dense. Alcohol is less dense than water; therefore, as sugar is fermented into alcohol, the specific gravity of a solution decreases. The specific gravity readings can then be used to determine alcohol concentrations and whether the fermentation has been completed. To test specific gravity, you float the hydrometer in a sample of your juice (pre-fermentation) or hard cider (post-fermentation) and take a reading. More information on how to calculate the alcohol content is given below. You can also use a refractometer instead of a hydrometer to determine the original sugar concentration. We bought a digital refractometer (cheaper manual ones are also available) to measure the Brix (percent sugar) in our wine grapes, so we know when to harvest them. This can be used on fruit juices as well, but it does not give accurate readings once fermentation has begun, since alcohol affects accuracy. The advantage of a refractometer is that you can test much smaller juice samples than you can with a hydrometer. You may also want to adjust sugar or acid levels before fermenting. The sugar levels of my fresh apple ciders are generally between 8-13 Brix, which should give a final alcohol content between 4-7%, respectively, so I do not usually add extra sugar. If you wish to increase the alcohol content of your hard cider, a general rule is to add 1.5 oz of sugar to raise 1 gallon of juice by 1 Brix. Add less sugar than you think, mix well, and then test your specific gravity/Brix again. To measure the sugar level with a hydrometer, put the juice in your graduated cylinder, place the hydrometer in the juice, and read the specific gravity (read the number at the bottom of the meniscus). Most cider should be between 1.030-1.070 for the original gravity (OG) and 1.002 or lower at the end for the final gravity (FG) if it has fermented to completion (a dry cider with no residual sugar). To calculate the alcohol by volume using specific gravities, use the formula ABV = (OG-FG) x 131.25, or use an online calculator. If you prefer sweeter cider, you either have to stop the fermentation before it reaches a 1.002 specific gravity using potassium sorbate or allow it to ferment to dryness and then back-sweeten (covered below). When using a refractometer, the original Brix reading multiplied by 0.55 gives an estimated ABV, assuming the fermentation has completed to dryness. You may also want to test the pH and titratable acidity (TA) of your cider. My ciders are generally between pH 3.1-3.3, which is acidic, and I do not usually change the pH. If you end up with a higher pH (lower acidity), above about 3.5-3.8, you may want to add extra acid. Usually, malic acid is added as malic acid is the primary acid in apples (as opposed to grapes, which have mostly tartaric acid). Too high a pH may occur due to overly ripe apples, as most fruit ripens, the acidity tends to decrease. Keeping the pH lower also helps reduce the chance of spoilage. If you wish to test the TA of your cider, which is different from pH (pH is the strength of the acid in a solution, while TA is the amount of acid present), you can use a TA test kit. I like the ones from Accuvin, which are easy to use, and they make a special TA test kit just for hard ciders, which measures TA as malic acid instead of tartaric acid, as the TA kits for grapes do. The Accuvin test can give a result from 5.4-9.8 g/L malic acid. According to their website, the amount of malic acid desired depends on the style of cider. For example, a European-type cider that is more tannic should be roughly 4.5-6.0 g/L (they also offer a cider/apple/pear TA kit with a range of 3.6-8.0 g/L). A dry style cider should be approximately 6.0-7.6 g/L, and a sweeter cider should be even higher. Once you have calculated the percentage of sugar, pH, and TA and made any necessary changes, you are ready to begin fermentation. Remember, if you added potassium metabisulfite, you must wait at least 24 hours before pitching your yeast. A Basic Hard Cider Recipe
FermentationIf you do not have GoFerm, you can add Fermaid K or Fermaid O yeast nutrient or another generic yeast nutrient instead. Lately, I have been rehydrating my yeast in GoFerm before I pitch it into my juice, but I have had a lot of success in the past just pitching the dry yeast onto the top of the juice. I have also started adding additional yeast nutrients a few days into the fermentation process to give the yeast a boost once a lot of the original nutrients have been used up. I ferment in a plastic, food-safe fermentation bucket with an air lock. I fill the air lock with potassium metabisulfite; others like to use vodka. Make sure to leave a few inches of headspace in the fermentation bucket to keep the cider from bubbling into the airlock. I usually stir the cider once every day while it is vigorously fermenting, to help it off-gas and mix in the yeast, but once fermentation slows, I generally stop stirring (unless you get sulfur compounds, in which case you want to vigorously stir it to off-gas the sulfur). After about 1-2 weeks, I transfer the cider to a glass carboy with an air lock. You can keep a little headspace as long as it is still fermenting. If fermentation appears to have completely stopped, you want to eliminate as much headspace as possible. You can top off with an older batch of bottled cider, a commercially available cider, or use fresh cider or apple juice. Clarifying and BottlingI rack the cider when a significant amount of yeast and debris settles to the bottom of the carboy. If your cider is slow to clarify, you can place it in a cold area like a refrigerator or outdoors (not so cold that it will freeze), which will speed up clarification. Once it is as clear as you want it, you can bottle your cider. I usually bottle 2-3 months after fermentation, but some prefer to age longer, up to one year. I rack the cider into a fermentation bucket and mix in approximately 2/3 cup of table sugar to a 5-gallon batch of cider, and then bottle it. This additional sugar will allow fermentation to occur in the bottle, which will carbonate it. You can find beer priming calculators online if you have an odd-sized batch of cider, which will determine the amount of sugar to add. You can also buy priming sugar drops at brew supply stores, which you add individually to each bottle before bottling. If you decide to back-sweeten your cider, please see below; otherwise, you can skip straight to bottling. You can also choose to oak your cider using cubes, chips, or spirals. I have never tried oaking my cider, but I am currently waiting for an apple wine to clarify and plan to add oak cubes for 3 months when I rack it next for bulk aging. In order to bottle, you will need caps and a bottle capper, or you can use the Grolsch-style bottles, which have replaceable gaskets. I much prefer to bottle with the Grolsch-style bottles as they are easier to close than using a handheld bottle capper. There are floor-style bottle cappers, which may be easier to use than the handheld type, but I have never personally used one. Back-SweeteningIf you wish to back-sweeten your cider, this can get more complicated. You can sweeten your cider to taste and then stabilize the cider with potassium sorbate, which will prevent further fermentation of the additional sugar you added. You do need to stabilize, or you risk your bottles blowing up when fermentation occurs in the bottle. The downside of this strategy is that you cannot carbonate in the bottle because the addition of sorbate will also prevent the subsequent fermentation needed to carbonate. If you really want sweet cider and also want it carbonated, you will need to carbonate with a keg system. If you do not want to invest in a keg system, then you can back-sweeten with artificial sugars that are not fermentable. This way, you can sweeten your cider and still carbonate it in the bottle with the addition of sugar. The downside of this strategy is that artificial sweeteners can give a chemical taste to your cider, and some people are opposed to artificial sweeteners because of potential health effects. ConclusionsI am looking forward to experimenting more with cider, including using tannic cider apples and not just table apples in my cider. Currently, I am waiting for my cider apple trees to mature and start producing fruit. I also would like to experiment with perry (pear cider) and adding other fruit to my apple cider (maybe strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, or peaches?). If you are looking for more resources on how to make cider and other ferments, please see my blog post on the “Top Books on Alcohol Fermentation”. If you have made a hard cider that you love, I would love to hear the recipe. References and Resources
Peach and Nectarine Varieties for Northern Climates
​Peaches and nectarines are native to China but were introduced to Florida by the Spanish in the 1500s. Peaches and nectarines belong to the Prunus genus, the same as plums and apricots. The scientific name (genus and species) of the peach is Prunus persica, while nectarines are derived from a natural mutation in peaches that allows them to grow without the fuzz found on peaches. Nectarines, therefore, have the same scientific genus and species name as peaches. Although peaches and nectarines grow best in warm climates, several peach varieties are suitable for growing in zone 4, where I live. However, I have yet to find a nectarine ideal for growing in zone 4. Most peaches and nectarines are self-pollinating and therefore do not need another nearby tree to produce fruit. There are a few peach varieties that do recommend a pollinator. Because nectarines lack the fuzz that peaches have, they are more susceptible to disease and insect predation. The fuzz acts as a protective barrier for peaches. Therefore, nectarine trees may need more fungicide and insecticide sprays than peach trees.
Special Note: Peaches and nectarines can have yellow or white flesh. It has been found that white-fleshed varieties are lower in acid (higher pH) than the yellow-fleshed varieties and therefore should not be canned due to the increased risk of botulism. See the NCHFP site on canning peaches for more information. Peaches
Nectarines
References and Resources
Apricot Varieties for Northern Climates
​Apricots, like plums and peaches, belong to the Prunus genus; however, they are a different species, Prunus armeniaca. If you are interested in plum-apricot crosses that are more plum-like, please see my post on Plums for Northern Climates. Here, I will list apricots only as Apriums®, which are plum-apricot crosses that are more apricot-like and are better suited to warm climates, usually zone 7 and higher. Apricots are native to China (near the Russian border) and were cultivated there for thousands of years. Apricots likely arrived in the United States via the East and West coasts, and they are now mostly cultivated commercially in California. There are a few varieties that are hardy to zones 3 and 4, but most grow best in zones 5-9.
We have not had the best luck growing apricots in Central Wisconsin (zone 4), perhaps partly because Apricots do not like wet feet or humid conditions, and are prone to fungal diseases, and most of our land is wet, consisting of two ponds and a marsh. We have tried two varieties, Goldcot and Moorpark, and neither survived more than a year. We also struggled to establish peach trees, but now have three varieties that have survived two years or more and have even harvested a few peaches. To be fair to the apricots, one was purchased from a company that did not ship at the correct time, and in general, I found their other trees to be weak and unlikely to thrive. I do plan to try new varieties of Apricots to see if we have better luck, and also plan to plant them on the only hill we have on our land, which should provide better drainage.
References and Resources
Plum jelly made from Toka or Bubblegum plums.
Plum Varieties for Northern Climates
​Plum trees belong to the Prunus genus, as do other common fruits and nuts, including cherries, peaches, and almonds. There are three main types of domesticated plums available in the United States: European plums (Prunus domestica), Asian or Japanese plums (Prunus salicina), and crosses, such as the cherry plum, Asian and cherry plum crosses, plum and apricot (Prunus armeniaca) crosses, or European or Asian plums crossed with the wild American plum. The United States and Canada have native plum trees as well, the American or wild plum (Prunus americana) and the Canada or black plum (Prunus nigra). Both produce small, edible fruit and grow as small trees or large shrubs. Although the native plums are commonly known as American (zones 3-8) or Canada plums, they can both be found in the United States and Canada. There is one domesticated Canada plum available, known as Bounty Nigra plum. This tree produces small reddish clingstone plums with yellow flesh. This fruit is good for jams, tarts, fresh eating, chutneys, or infusing alcohol.
​Below, I give a brief description of the different types of plum trees and a chart of the most common varieties of each type, all of which are cold-hardy (most will grow in zones 4 or 5, but there are even a few that will grow in zone 3). Most of these plums also grow as far south as zones 8 or 9. Please note that many characteristics on the chart vary depending on the rootstock the tree is grafted onto, the weather conditions that year, or even microclimates within your zone. There are also many other possible pollinators than those listed. Cummins Nursery is a great resource to check other pollination partners, as they have a very comprehensive list for each plum variety. If you have a favorite cold-hardy plum that is not on this list, please send me a message so I can add it. These charts are not comprehensive, as there are over 2,000 varieties of plums; therefore, I chose ones that are commonly available at several different nurseries.
European Plums
European plums (Prunus domestica), as their name suggests, originated in Europe. They can be yellow, blue, or green in color with firm flesh. European plums tend to ripen in late summer. Many European plums are self-fertile but will set more fruit when nearby pollinator trees are present. European plums require another European plum for pollination and will not cross-pollinate with an Asian plum. European plum trees generally grow to about 15 feet tall. European plums tend to be more cold-hardy than Asian plums.
Asian Plums
Asian plums (Prunus salicina) are native to China, Japan, and Korea, and tend to be juicy, as they were selected for use in plum wine and plum sauce, common in Asian cultures. They were introduced into the United States via Japan in the late 1800s, and many were crossed by plant breeder Luther Burbank, including wild American plums (discussed in the “Plum Crossesâ€
Wireworms and Their Control Wireworms collected from potato traps, ready for the chickens. What are Wireworms?Wireworms are the larval form of click beetles (Elateridae family) and look like a thinner version of a mealworm. It is their slender size that gives them the common name of “wireworm.” Click beetles are typically black or brown and are recognized by the distinctive “click” noise they produce when they flip from their backs to their front. Adult click beetles are herbivores, but they rarely cause issues from feeding. Wireworms, however, live in the soil and can cause agricultural damage. Some species can persist in the soil for up to 6 years until they transform into adult beetles. Wireworms are red-orange-brown in color with a hard, shell-like coat. Some wireworm species feed on seeds, cotyledons, seedlings, roots, and the underground stem portion of a plant, and can cause harm or even kill plants, particularly small seedlings. They also bore into and eat potatoes, garlic, beets, carrots, and other root vegetables, making them unpalatable, reducing storage time, and/or causing them to rot. How do You Know you have a Wireworm Problem I began to notice that my young brassica plants would occasionally wilt and die suddenly. When I pulled up the plants, there were almost always one or more wireworms feeding on the roots. Eventually, I started noticing I had garlic plants that were yellow and stunted. Again, when I pulled them up, there were usually wireworms feeding on the bulbs. Wireworms can also reduce seed germination if they feed on the seeds before they can emerge. If you till your garden, you can also keep an eye out for wireworms. We only till once or twice a year, but our ducks have learned to recognize the sound of the tiller, and they follow behind it, gobbling up all the bugs they can find. Another option to determine if you have wireworms is to set traps, generally made with a chunk of potato or a handful of seeds. I use the potato traps and will describe them in more detail below. Wireworm PreventionAdult click beetles like to lay eggs in the soil of weedy or grassy areas in fields and gardens. Once hatched, the larvae burrow further into the soil to feed on seeds, roots, and other organic matter. If you recently turned over sod to create a garden, you will likely have more wireworms. If possible, let the soil rest for a year before planting. Eliminate as many grassy and weedy areas in your garden as possible to reduce the number of eggs these pests lay. Since our garden is part of our fenced-in orchard and vineyard, we have lots of grass for the click beetles to propagate, which may partially explain why we have a wireworm problem. Also, make sure your soil drains well, as wireworms thrive in damp soil (at least in Wisconsin). In other areas that receive less rain, different species are adapted to drier soil. However, my biggest problems with wireworms occur in my raised beds, which, for the most part, drain very well. Last summer, 2024, we received massive amounts of rain, which may explain why I have been trapping so many wireworms this year, even after having trapped hundreds of them last year. Update: once again in 2025, we received above-average rainfall in the spring and early summer, and once again, I trapped hundreds of wireworms. Another way to reduce wireworm damage to seeds is to not plant too early. Many people, especially in our short growing season in zone 4 Wisconsin, including myself, often plant as soon as the daytime and nighttime temperatures warm up. However, for seed germination, it is the soil temperature that matters. If the soil is too cold, seeds take longer to germinate and get established, which gives the wireworms more time to find and eat the seeds.  Wireworm potato traps (orange flags) in a raised bed. Wireworm ControlMost plants are less susceptible to wireworm damage once they are larger and out of the seedling stage, so it is best to start wireworm control early in the spring. The exception to this is root crops, which are susceptible throughout the growing season. So, if you do have a wireworm problem, what are your options to control them? Commercial farms sometimes use insecticide drenches to treat the soil. If you do this, you must treat early, before planting. Even though I use pesticides sparingly, when needed (to treat invasive buckthorn and prevent fungal diseases on my fruit trees and grapes), soaking my soil with insecticide before planting is not something I am comfortable with. My go-to method is to use potato traps. I cut potatoes into about 2-inch chunks and then place a wooden skewer (like those used for grilling) into the potato with flagging tape tied around the top of the skewer. I bury these potatoes about 2-4 inches deep into each of my raised beds (~6/bed). Every few days to a week, I check the traps and remove any wireworms that have burrowed into the potato (then I feed them to my chickens). This method is very effective in trapping wireworms, but it is also very labor-intensive since I have so many raised beds (18 right now). I do not even bother trying to put traps into my in-ground garden, as this would increase my labor significantly. Ideally, traps should be placed before you plant. I did not place traps last fall or early enough this spring, and I have already lost many garlic plants to wireworms this year. Interestingly, the wireworms much prefer my “Chesnok Red” garlic over my more robust “Music” garlic, so I will probably only grow “Music” from now on. Another option to control wireworms is to use beneficial nematodes, which kill the wireworm larvae. Nematodes are microscopic roundworms that evolved naturally to kill various insects. Specific species of nematodes have been selected to target specific agricultural insect pests. The advantage of this method is that once they are applied, the nematodes continue to work throughout the growing season and, over time, can dramatically reduce the wireworm load in your garden. The disadvantage for me is that they are relatively expensive. Since I have a huge area that I would ideally treat (my fenced-in garden area, including the orchard and vineyard, is 40,000 square feet), it would cost me roughly $700. If I treat only my raised beds, this is much more affordable at approximately $50, but this leaves many wireworms outside the treated area, including my in-ground garden, which will turn into adults that can move around and lay more eggs. I have treated just my raised beds in the past, which may or may not have been effective (likely due to lack of rain and not enough watering). Another disadvantage of nematodes is that you have to water the area to be treated before you apply them. You then apply the nematodes with water, and then you water the area again after you apply them. Ideally, the area should stay moist for a couple of weeks after you apply them to help the nematodes burrow into the soil more easily. One year, when we tried nematodes, we had a drought year and probably did not keep the area moist enough for them to be effective (watering the garden that year also wore out our well pump, which ended up getting replaced that summer). The last disadvantage for those in northern climates is that the nematodes do not overwinter well, so ideally, you would treat every spring for optimal control. Even with all of these limitations, I am a huge fan of beneficial nematodes IF you have a small garden and can keep it well-watered until they are established. Nematodes are an organic, natural control option for those unwilling to use more traditional chemical methods of control. Although this method is labor-intensive to start, it continues to work all summer long, which will likely save time compared to potato traps. Other ideas that can help reduce wireworm pressure include tilling the soil in the fall (and again in the spring) to expose wireworms to predators such as wild birds (or, in our case, domesticated ducks and chickens). You can also try crop rotation, such as not planting root crops in the same garden bed each year or leaving a garden bed fallow for a year (while still keeping it weeded).  Wireworms burrowed into a potato trap, ready to collect. References and Resources
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AuthorIn 2016, my family and I moved from the New York City area to small town Wisconsin. Our move, this website and blog (and our previous Etsy store) is the result of our desire over the past several years to simplify our lives, increase our quality of life, reconnect with nature, and enjoy a more self-sufficient life. I grew up as a country kid in central Pennsylvania working on my grandfather's fruit farm and as a corn "de-tassler" at a local seed farm. My background is in biology where my love of nature originated. I am a former research scientist and professor and have now transitioned to a part-time stay-at-home mom, self-employed tutor, and small business owner. Thank you for taking the time to check out my site. Archives
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