 Jimmy Nardello peppers, a sweet, Italian frying pepper, belonging to the C. annuum species. These are roughly 8 inches long. Cultivated Pepper SpeciesThe Solanaceae or nightshade family includes many plants commonly grown in home gardens. Some plants are toxic, but many are grown for food including peppers, tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplant. Peppers belong to the Capsicum genus and tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplant belong to the Solanum genus. There are many species in the Capsicum genus but only 5-6 are generally cultivated in the United States, including C. annuum, C. baccatum C. chinense, C. frutescens, C. glabruisculum, and C. pubescens (1, 2). The majority of, and most familiar, peppers grown in the United States are C. annuum. Please refer to my blog post on pepper varieties for more information about various pepper cultivars. From left to right, Topik cherry peppers, early jalapeno, and Boldog Hungarian spice paprika peppers, all beloning to the C. annuum species. C. annuumThe C. annuum species includes some of the most common pepper varieties in the United States including bell peppers, jalapeno, poblano, serrano, cayenne, Anaheim/Hatch, Thai chili, and paprika peppers. These peppers originated in South America. Some of my favorite C. annuum peppers that may be less well known include Jimmy Nardello, a sweet Italian frying pepper that pairs well with Italian sausage, shishito, a Japanese variety best served blistered, and fish peppers, not just for their beautiful striped colors, their use in tasty fish stews, but also for their history in the African American community (3). From left to right, a chocolate beauty bell pepper, shishito peppers, and a violet sparkle sweet pepper, all belonging to the C. annuum species. C. baccatumSome of the C. baccatum varieties include the Aji peppers such as lemon drop aji and aji Amarillo, many of which are associated with Peru. This species also includes the bishop’s crown, Brazilian starfish, sugar rush peach, Nepalese Bell (aka Nepali), and sweet piquanté (Peppadew brand name) peppers. These peppers originated in South and Central America and can include interesting shapes. Many have a citrus flavor. I am growing both the lemon drop aji and the Nepalese bell peppers for the first time this year and both plants are significantly larger, close to 4 feet tall, than the C. annuum species. I have grown Brazilian starfish in the past and all three are slow to ripen compared to C. annuum. The first year growing the Brazilian starfish I did not get a single ripe pepper before frost (I am in zone 4) so I grew them in a pot the second year to bring them in under lights if needed. From left to right, ripe lemom drop aji peppers, a lemon drop aji bush much bigger than C. annuum pepper plants to its left, and a Nepalese bell pepper, all C. bacatuum species. C. chinenseThe most well-known C. chinense varieties are the habanero types, including scotch bonnet, ghost peppers, 7 pot peppers, and Pepper X, the hottest pepper in the world. These peppers originated in South and Central America, not China as the name would suggest. Many of these peppers tend to have citrus or floral notes and wrinkled skin. Although these peppers are very popular, particularly for hot sauces, I have yet to grow these, because I prefer mild to medium spicy peppers. C. frutescensC. frutescens species include the Tabasco pepper, piri-piri (aka peri-peri), and other less well-known varieties many from Asia (including the Philippines, Indonesia, China, and Japan) and some from Africa, although the species originated in South and Central America. Many of these pepper plants are smaller, shrub-like with small, upright facing peppers.  A yellow Corno di Toro (horn of the bull) C. annuum pepper, approximately 8 inches long. The red and yellow Corno di Toro are very sweet when ripe, very prolific, and one of my favorite sweet peppers. C. glabruisculumThe chiltepin pepper, native to Mexico, the southwest United States, and northern South America was formerly classified as a variety of C. annuum but has now been given its own species, C. glabrisculum. This pepper is tiny and very hot (usually between 50,000-100,000 but depending on the growing season may reach 250,000 Scoville Heat Units). I grew these mostly as a decorative pepper but also dried the ripe peppers to use as hot pepper flakes. C. pubescens The C. pubescens species originated in Bolivia and Peru and is probably the least well-known cultivated pepper variety. The more well-known varieties include the rocoto/locoto pepper and manzano/manzana pepper. These are small, apple-shaped peppers, similar to a small bell pepper but can have a decent amount of heat ranging from 30,000-100,000 SHU. These peppers are unique from the other cultivated species in that their flowers are purple instead of white for most other peppers, their foliage is hairy, their seeds are black, and they are more cold-tolerant. Poblano peppers (left) and end of season green peppers (center and right), all C. annuum species. Our short growing season in zone 4 means we ususally end up with lots of green peppers at the end of the season. References and Resources
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History of No-Mow May The No-Mow May movement was started by a non-profit organization, Plantlife (1), based out of Great Britain, in 2019. The movement was popularized in the United States with help from the city of Appleton, Wisconsin (a couple of hours from where I live in Central Wisconsin) and Lawrence University, also in Appleton (2). Appleton and Lawrence are associated with an initiative of the Xerces Society, Bee City, and Bee Campus (3). The Xerxes Society is a nonprofit organization focused on saving insect habitats and thereby the insects themselves. The first No-Mow May campaign began in Appleton and the surrounding Fox Cities area in 2020. Due to its catchy name and, I think, many people’s desire to make a difference in the environment, the movement quickly caught on. The point of No-Mow May is, logically, to not mow your yard in May (in more southern locations No-Mow April makes more sense) to increase the number of flowers for bees to forage, particularly early in the spring when food is limited. Does No-Mow May Make a Difference? The short answer is, it depends. If you have a perfectly manicured lawn with no flowers (what many people consider weeds in lawns) then allowing your grass to grow tall is not helpful (4). If on the other hand, you have many different flowering plants (especially natives) growing in your lawn, it could make a difference. However, what flowers you have growing in your lawn is what matters. Many lawns that are not treated with herbicides tend to grow dandelions and Creeping Charlie. While some bees will visit these flowers, they are not the best source of nutrition for bees. Creeping Charlie is invasive in many states and it is not a reliable source of nectar for bees (5). Dandelion pollen has a low protein content (only 15%), which is not sufficient nutrition for bees (6). Ideally, you would plant native flowers in your lawn, in my area violets (Viola sororia), Self-heal (Prunella vulgaris) and Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) do well. Native plants also have an advantage in that they attract native bees (7) (honeybees are not native to the United States). Dutch white clover (Trifolium repens) is a good bee food since it has high protein content in the pollen and high sugar content in the nectar and does great in lawns, although Dutch white clover is not native (7). Creeping thyme (Thymus praecox) is also often included in lawn bee mixes, although it is also not native, because it is low-growing and a good source of nectar (7). For me, the best part about No-Mow May is that it is a gateway for many people to learn about why all insects are important (bird food!), not just bees, and how to add and improve insect habitat on their own properties (2). Slow-Mow SummerSlow-Mow Summer is an alternative to No-Mow May. Similar movements are called Slow-Mow Spring, Low-Mow Spring, and Low-Mow Summer. These movements are closer to the ideal of helping native insects for a longer time than just one month. If you do decide to plant native flowers for bees to forage, not mowing only one month out of the year does not help as much as it could. Ideally, you would mow less often and mow higher (about 4”), allowing your native (or partially native) ground cover a chance to flower between mowings (8-10). Dutch white clover (left), while not native is a good food for bees. Purple self-heal (Prunella) flowers and yarrow (ferny-type plant) are both native flowers that adapt well to lawns. Why do Lawns Matter?It is estimated that up to 40 million acres of land in the United States have been converted into lawns (11). Most lawns are sterile, providing little food for herbivorous insects, which feed the birds, especially baby birds. If rural and suburban homeowners are willing to reduce the size of their lawns, switch some of their laws to bee lawns, and increase native flower plantings (see below), this could make a huge difference in increasing biodiversity in the United States (11). An Alternative to Slow-Mow Summer One alternative to mowing less often is to create flower beds full of native flowers. There is nothing wrong with keeping a lawn, it is great for dogs and kids especially. However, decreasing the size of lawns and increasing native plant beds is a great, probably even better idea, than trying to turn turfgrass into a low-growing flowering bee lawn (11). In conjunction with planting native plants is to not clean up your flower beds in the fall (#LeaveTheLeaves) and delay clean-up until late spring. Or at the very least trim your beds and let the dead stalks hang out nearby along with any leaves until spring. Many native insects overwinter in dead plant debris and leaves and many birds feast on dead seed heads all winter. ConclusionWhether you choose to plant a bee lawn, reduce or eliminate pesticide usage, add native plants to your flower beds, reduce the size of your lawn, or whatever combination works for you and your property, the important thing is to make a change and bring awareness to the issue of declining pollinators and insects in general. I have listed many resources below if you are interested in reading further. The University of Minnesota Bee Lab also has a list of companies that sell bee lawn mixes if you wish to change some of your lawn to a bee lawn (12). Alternatively, there are several native plant nurseries, such as Prairie Moon Nursery in Minnesota (13) and Prairie Nursery in Wisconsin (14) that sell native seeds and plants online. References and Resources
Storage Onions and Shallots for Northern ClimatesI compiled a list of onions and shallots that grow well in northern climates and store well for the winter. These are long-day or long-intermediate-day onions. I have included their best-growing latitudes (when known), days to maturity, whether they are open-pollinated or hybrid (F1) varieties, and how well they store under ideal conditions. If you do not know if you are in a long-day onion zone you can check out Johnny's Selected Seed map of long-day, intermediate-day, and short-day latitudes. The zones do overlap and you can also choose day-neutral onions as well. Several yellow onion varieties are compared to Copra. Copra was an F1 hybrid yellow onion that was the gold standard for storage onions. Copra was discontinued but, Patterson F1 is now one of the best, if not the best storage onion available. So, if an onion is compared to Copra, you can expect extremely long storage potential. I did not include any sweet onions in my charts. Due to their high sugar content sweet onions do not store well. In some cases, Walla Walla (90-125 days to maturity), an intermediate-long day variety, can store up to one month but is best eaten fresh. Another alternative is Ailsa Craig OP (110 days, long-day, 38-60° latitude), a large, sweet, Spanish-type yellow onion that stores for up to one month. Pictures of many of the onions I have grown are shown with a tennis ball for size reference. These were some of the biggest onions I grew, please note not all got to these sizes. At the end of this post, I include the seed companies used to compile this list. If you have any other favorite long-day storage onion varieties I missed in this list please let me know and I will update the charts! Also, read my blog post on growing onions if you want more information. Red Onions Ruby Red OP Red Wethersfield OP Red Mountain F1 Red Bull F1 Yellow Onions Patterson F1 Talon F1 New York Early OP Yellow of Parma OP White Onions  Southport White Globe, the only white onion I have grown thus far. Shallots Val-Aux-Vents OP Zebrune OP References and Resources
Cucurbita Genus: Squash and Pumpkin Species Pictured clockwise starting from the upper left is Delicata squash, Jack-Be-Little gourd, Gill's Golden Pippin squash, Acorn squash, Sweet Dumpling squash, and Buttercup squash. All are C. pepo species, except for Buttercup which is a C. maxima. Cucurbitaceae Family The Cucurbitaceae family includes squash, pumpkins, gourds, melons, cucumbers, bitter melons, and luffa. The Cucurbita genus, the focus of this blog post, includes squash, pumpkins, and gourds. Species in the Cucurbita genus include C. argyrosperma, C. ficifolia, C. maxima, C. moschata, and C. pepo. Below I review each species including commonly grown varieties and conclude with a discussion of cross-pollination concerns if you wish to save seed. Cucurbita argyrosperma C. argyrosperma species include the Cushaw-type squash. The most well-known variety in the United States is the Green-Striped Cushaw. Other varieties found in the United States include the Japanese Pie Pumpkin and Orange-Striped Cushaw. This species originated from Mexico and was previously known as C. mixta. Cucurbita ficifolia C. ficifolia is an edible squash, not well known in the United States. It has many common names including fig-leaf gourd, Malabar gourd, Asian pumpkin, and more. It is commonly grown in South America, Mexico, Asia, and Africa.  Golden Hubbard squash a variety that belongs to the C. maxima species. Cucurbita maxima The C. maxima species includes squash varieties well-known in the United States including Boston Marrow, North Georgia Candy Roaster, Hubbard (both blue and golden), Red Kuri, Turk’s Turban, Buttercup, Banana Squash, Jarrahdale Pumpkin, Kabocha, Lakota, Rouge Vif D’Etampes (also known as the Cinderella Pumpkin), Galeux d’Eysines (also known as the Peanut Pumpkin), and Marina Di Chioggia. This species also includes giant pumpkins, some of which can reach well over 2000 pounds! The giant pumpkin varieties are derived from Dill’s Atlantic Giant, developed by Howard Dill, a Canadian pumpkin breeder.  A Black Futsu squash, a variety of the C. moschata species. Cucurbita moschata  A Tromboncino squash, a C. moschata species. C. moschata is a commonly grown species in the United States and includes the Butternut and Cheese varieties such as Long Island cheese and Musquee de Provence. It also includes Seminole, Black Futsu, and Tromboncino (Zucchino Rampicante) varieties. The tromboncino varieties are unique in that you can eat them when young and tender, like zucchini, or allow them to mature and eat them like winter squash. C. moschata is generally used to make canned pumpkin pie mix in the United States. If you live in an area with squash vine borers, this species also tends to be more resistant than other species since it has a solid, not hollow, stem. Cucurbita pepo  A Black Beauty Zucchini, a variety in the C. pepo species. The species C. pepo includes many well-known varieties including winter and summer squash. Winter squash varieties include Acorn, Sweet Dumpling, Delicata, Spaghetti, and pumpkins commonly used for pies or Jack-o’-lanterns. Pumpkins in this species include Connecticut Field, New England Pie, Winter Luxury, Early Giant, Big Max, and Howden. The hulless seed varieties, such as Kakai, are also C. pepo. Summer squash varieties include Cocozelle, Crookneck, Straightneck, Scallop, Patty Pan, Pool Ball, and the many Zucchini varieties. C. pepo also includes most non-edible, small, decorative gourds, including the winged and warted gourds and the small gourd-type pumpkins, such as Jack-be-Little. One exception is the larger gourds such as Birdhouse, Bottle, Dinosaur, and Caveman Club which belong to a different genus, Lagenaria. C. pepo is unfortunately very susceptible to the squash vine borer due to its hollow stems. A classic field pumpkin (left) and decorative, non-edible gourd (right). Both are different varieties of the same C. pepo species. Cross-PollinationYou do not have to worry about cross-pollination in any plant unless you are interested in saving seed (except corn since you eat the seed). Pollination by another variety of the same species will only affect the next generation if you save the seed and plant it the following season. It will not affect the fruit (i.e. tomato) of the plant. If you are interested in saving seed the general rule is that varieties in the same species can cross-pollinate. For example, if you plant acorn squash and a sugar pie pumpkin, they are both C. pepo and likely will cross-pollinate as they are insect-pollinated and have separate male and female flowers. However, it is unlikely that a C. pepo variety, like acorn squash, will cross with a C. maxima variety, such as a Hubbard squash since they are two different species. Squash and pumpkins will also not cross with melons, including cantaloupe and watermelon, or cucumbers, as they are also different species. If you wish to grow multiple varieties of pumpkins and squash from the same species, and you also wish to save seed, you will either need to separate varieties by a half to one mile or net the plants to prevent insect pollination and hand pollinate.  Multiple varieties of C. pepo gourds, many of which were derived from volunteers that were cross-pollinated the previous year. References and Resources
 A good pumpkin and squash year! |
AuthorIn 2016, my family and I moved from the New York City area to small town Wisconsin. Our move, this website and blog (and our previous Etsy store) is the result of our desire over the past several years to simplify our lives, increase our quality of life, reconnect with nature, and enjoy a more self-sufficient life. I grew up as a country kid in central Pennsylvania working on my grandfather's fruit farm and as a corn "de-tassler" at a local seed farm. My background is in biology where my love of nature originated. I am a former research scientist and professor and have now transitioned to a part-time stay-at-home mom, self-employed tutor, and small business owner. Thank you for taking the time to check out my site. Archives
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