Herb GardeningWhat is an Herb?Herb is short for herbaceous plant which botanically means a plant that grows without a woody stem and dies back each winter to the ground. However, some plants commonly considered herbs, such as rosemary, sage, and lavender, if grown long enough develop a woody stem and do not always completely die back. Other definitions of herbs are flowering, seed-bearing, plants which are used for their leafy green parts although there are some exceptions. Spices, in contrast, are usually seeds, bark, roots, or the fruit of plants, generally sold dried. Herbs are often used both fresh and dried. For this post, I will use a broader definition of herbs as anything I grow for culinary purposes or tea. Why Grow Herbs?I grow herbs for a variety of reasons. First, I love gardening and try to grow as many different fruits, vegetables, and herbs as possible. Second, buying fresh or even dried herbs is expensive. If you use a lot of herbs the cost can add up and growing your own can save you money. Lastly, I grow herbs because I love to cook. The focus of this post will be on herbs used for culinary purposes. Many herbs are also grown for medicinal purposes, however, as I am not a medical doctor I will not delve into herbs grown specifically for medicine, although many culinary herbs also have traditional medical uses as well. Culinary UsesUsing fresh herbs in your cooking can help you reduce the amount of sugar, salt, and fat in your food because you are getting an extra burst of flavor from the herbs. As I already mentioned, growing many herbs can save you money, especially if you dry your excess herbs to use later. I also like to use my herbs to make herb mixes, such as Italian seasoning. Container versus In-GroundTwo criteria determine whether I grow an herb in the ground versus in a container. If an herb, such as rosemary, will not survive my cold winters in zone 4b, I grow it in a pot so I can bring it in for the winter. Other herbs, such as mint, tend to grow aggressively so I also grow these in pots, bring them in for the winter, and cut the flowers off before they go to seed to prevent spread. Other herbs that do not spread excessively and can overwinter in my zone, such as thyme, parsley, tarragon, sage, and chives I plant in my garden. Again, unless I want them to self-seed, I cut off the flower heads before they go to seed to keep them from spreading. I also grow some herbs in my Aerogarden or pots if I want fresh herbs throughout the winter. LocationI like to grow my herbs close to my kitchen, so it is easy to pop outside when needed. I do not have a dedicated herb bed, so I intersperse them in my front flower bed. Because I also live where it gets very cold in the winter, I plant my herbs on the south side of my house (which happens to be the front) to increase the chances that the herbs overwinter well. Some herbs like lavender, are hit or miss for overwintering in my zone but I have had success with “Munstead” lavender on the south side of my house. Other varieties have failed to overwinter. Start from Seed or Buy Transplants?Whether you buy herbs to transplant at a greenhouse or hardware store or start your own depends on whether you are already set up to start seeds. If you do not want the hassle of starting your seeds, there is nothing wrong with buying the plants. You will likely have a smaller selection of herbs and varieties to choose from, but it is the faster and easier option. If you want to try starting seeds but are new to the process, I recommend reading my blog post on starting seeds. Some herbs can be more difficult to start from seed. Lavender for example needs light to germinate so you want to gently press them into your seed starting mix and put a light over them immediately. Other seeds like parsley can take a long time (up to a month) to germinate. How to Take Care of Herb PlantsHow to take care of herbs depends on where you live and whether your plants are in the ground or in pots. I live in central Wisconsin in zone 4b which means that many herbs I either need to grow in pots which I bring in for the winter or grow outside as annuals. A few herbs I grow outside as perennials (tarragon, sage, and thyme) or allow them to self-seed (parsley) for renewal. Most herbs prefer full sun (6+ hours per day) but some exceptions are cilantro which is prone to bolting in full sun or hot temperatures. Most herbs also prefer well-drained soil. If you have heavy, clay soil you will likely need to amend it extensively to get herbs to grow well. Mixing in compost or composted manure with peat or coconut coir will help lighten the soil. Lavender, for example, particularly enjoys well-drained, drier soil. In general, herbs do not need a lot of fertilizer, a slow-release nitrogen-based fertilizer, such as blood meal is useful for herbs that you do not want to flower. For those herbs where the flower is harvested, for example, chamomile or borage, you may want a more balanced, all-purpose fertilizer. Alternatively, if you grow your herbs in containers, you want to choose a potting soil that drains well. Do not use topsoil (unless you amend it extensively) as this compacts too much and will not drain well. I tend to use Pro-Mix (I recently switched to Sunshine Mix since my local store stopped carrying Pro-Mix) because it is light and drains well. However, it does not have many nutrients, so I often add compost or composted manure when potting. You also need to fertilize pots much more often than herbs in the soil as the nutrients tend to drain away with watering or in the rain if they are outside. The Herbs I GrowBasilBasil (Ocimum basilicum) comes in many different varieties. The classic, most common variety is Genovese which is easy to find in many stores and greenhouses. Less common but still popular varieties include Sweet Thai, Spicy Saber, Cinnamon, Lemon, Lime, Blue Spice, Red Rubin, and Dark Opal. Red Rubin and Dark Opal are purple varieties of basil that I enjoy using fresh, however, I tried making pesto with them and found that the color turns a brownish purple which although still tastes delicious is a little off-putting in color. I also enjoy growing Holy Basil (Tulsi) which I use for tea instead of cooking as its flavor differs significantly from traditional basil. Most basils do not get more than 2 feet high and do well both in the ground or pots. Basil tends to flower, which the bees love, but if you want to keep harvesting the leaves be sure to pinch off any flowers that start developing. BorageBorage (Borage officinalis)is an annual but self-seeds prolifically if you do not pinch off the flowers. Borage prefers full sun and is easy to grow. It can get tall, up to 3 feet, but tend to fall over so plants may need to be supported by other nearby plants with a stronger growth habit. Most people eat the flowers although other parts such as the leaves are also edible. The flowers often start pinkish but generally turn blue. Bees love borage, although it is not native to the United States, but rather from the Mediterranean. Borage has a light, cucumber-type flavor, and the flowers are often used as a garnish. My preferred use of the borage flowers is in various cocktails. CatnipCatnip (Nepeta cataria) is a perennial herb hardy to zone 4 in the mint family that grows up to 3 feet tall. Catmints belong to the same genus (Nepeta) as catnip but are different species. I mostly grow catnip for my cats, due to the production of nepetalactone which cats love, but some people also use it for tea. Although catnip is in the mint family it does not spread as readily by roots but it will self-seed prolifically if you do not cut off the flowers. Chamomile, GermanThere are two different species of plants commonly called chamomile. I have only grown German Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla or M. recutita) so that will be my focus. The other chamomile is Roman Chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile), a low growing, ground cover type plant. German chamomile grows to about 2 feet high. It is an annual but can self-sow prolifically. The flowers are used to make tea which supposedly has relaxing properties. ChivesTwo different types of chives are commonly grown. Both common chives (Allium schoenoprasum) and garlic chives (Allium tuberosum) are cold-hardy perennials. Common chives grow round, hollow stems with purple flowers while garlic chives grow flat stems with white flowers. Both have an onion-like flavor, but garlic chives have more of a garlicky flavor. Chives will slowly form larger clumps as they grow, but if the flowers are not snipped off, they will self-sow prolifically. For more information on growing chives please link to my blog post on growing onions. CilantroCilantro (Coriandrum sativum) also known as coriander, is an annual herb commonly used in Mexican cuisine. In the United States, we call the leaves cilantro and the seed coriander. Many people enjoy the lime-like flavor of cilantro, but some taste soap or other off-flavors instead due to changes in the OR6A2 gene, which encodes an olfactory receptor protein. I find cilantro to be probably the most challenging herb to grow. It tends to bolt quickly, particularly in full sun, and hot weather. I have even tried growing different varieties that are less prone to bolting, such as “Slow-Bolt” and “Caribe” without much luck. However, I find if I let the cilantro bolt and re-seed itself, I often have small amounts of usable cilantro, and seed, for much of the summer. DillDill (Anethum graveolens) is an herb most well-known for seasoning pickles. I also like dill on fish. Dill is an annual that can grow up to 3 feet tall. If you allow it to go to seed it will self-sow prolifically and you may not need to plant dill ever again. The flower heads of dill are often used, you can also collect the frilly leaves and the seeds. Dill is best sown directly in place as it has a taproot that does not allow it to transplant well. Dill likes full sun but keep the soil moist or it can bolt prematurely. There are many sources, even reputable ones, that claim that dill and fennel will cross-pollinate so as not to plant them near each other. Since dill and fennel belong to different genera (Anethum vs Foeniculum) I find this very unlikely. I believe this myth is perpetuated because the plants look similar to each other. I have also planted them a few feet apart and have had no issues with them cross-pollinating. Also, please note, that cross-pollination only affects the seeds of a plant and if you plant those seeds, it will affect the following year's plant. There is no way cross-pollination can affect the leaves or even the fruit of the currently growing plant. FennelThere are two types of fennels (Foeniculum vulgare). Bulbing fennel (Florence variety) produces large bulbs at the base of the plant and is my preferred variety to grow. You can also use the leafy greens. Sweet fennel is grown for the leaves and does not produce a large bulb. Some fennels can be grown as short-lived perennials or biennials, but I grow it as an annual in my zone of 4b. I direct seed fennel in late spring/early summer. It is possible to transplant fennel, but they form a long taproot, and disturbing the roots can cause it to bolt prematurely. High heat and long summer days can also cause it to bolt prematurely but I do not have a long enough growing season to delay planting. Some fennel varieties, such as “Bronze” have a darker, copper color and are often grown for ornamental purposes. GarlicGarlic (Allium sativum) is divided into 2 types, hard-neck which forms scapes and grows better in northern climates, and soft-neck which does better in southern climates. For the hard-neck, northern varieties, which I grow, the cloves are planted in the fall and harvested the following summer. You can buy new bulbs every year to plant, or you can save some of the garlic you harvested in the summer and plant the cloves in the fall. You can plant garlic in the spring, but the bulbs get larger if you plant in the fall. You can also harvest and eat the scapes from the hard neck varieties. My favorite way to eat them is grilled or scape pesto. There are many varieties of garlic. I like Music which forms very large, white bulbs but you get 4-5 large cloves per bulb. I also like Chesnok Red which has much smaller bulbs but has more cloves per bulb. They also have purplish-red stripes on the outer skin of the bulbs. I also like both these varieties as they store well, usually long into spring. For more information on growing garlic please check out my blog post. GingerGinger (Zingiber officinale) is a perennial in warm climates, but I grow ginger in fabric pots and bring them in for the winter until they die back. After the ginger dies back, I dig out the roots, pick out the best for replanting, break those roots up into plantable chunks (look for where new buds are starting to form), and let them dry for a week or two. I then re-plant the root pieces, usually in late winter/early spring. Ginger grows large, up to 4 feet tall so I plant it in 5-7 gallon fabric pots. I like to slice and dry my ginger to later grind into ginger powder or use it for tea. LavenderThere are three lavender species but common lavender or English lavender (L. angustifolia), particularly the “Munstead” variety is the only one I have managed to overwinter in my area. Lavenders prefer full sun and very well-drained soil. Lavender will even grow in rocky, unfertile soil and does not like much fertilizer. Lemon BalmLemon balm (Melissa officinalis) is a hardy perennial (zone 4-9) in the mint family. It grows as a bush up to about 2 feet high. Like most mints, it tends to spread and will self-seed if you do not pinch off the flower heads, but it does not spread as aggressively as many other mints and is, therefore, easier to keep under control when planted in the ground. Lemon balm can be used in cooking, but I use mine for tea. LemongrassLemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) is a perennial in very warm zones, but I grow it in a pot and bring it inside for the winter. It is used to make tea but is also used in Asian cooking, particularly Vietnamese and Cambodian dishes. I use it most often to flavor chicken. Lemongrass is related to citronella grass (C. nardus and C. winterianus) which is used to make citronella oil, an insect repellent. LovageLovage (Levisticum officinale) is a celery-like herb that can grow 6 feet in height. This is perennial in my zone of 4b, although it dies back to the ground every winter, it grows back in the spring. Lovage grows in full sun to partial shade but prefers moist soil. The leaves of lovage can be used like celery, such as soups or stews. I find the flavor of lovage to be a little too strong for my taste, so I prefer to use it in smaller amounts. MarjoramMarjoram (Origanum majorana) is related to oregano (Origanum vulgare) but is less cold hardy, so I grow it in pots which I bring in for the winter, or in my Aerogarden, or I grow it outside in the ground as an annual. Marjoram usually has smaller leaves than oregano and its flavor is milder. In general, I find marjoram to grow less vigorously than oregano. I like marjoram as an additive to my Italian seasoning mix. OreganoOregano (Origanum vulgare) is hardy to zone 4 (most of the time) and is a vigorous, easy-to-grow herb. It is related to marjoram (see above) but the leaves tend to be larger and its flavor is stronger. I use oregano either alone or in combination with other herbs in an Italian seasoning mix. Oregano likes full sun and dry soil and can spread. I clip off the flowers to keep it from reseeding. ParsleyParsley (Petroselinum crispum) is very easy to grow but if you start it from seed it can take up to 3 weeks to germinate. Parsley is a biennial plant and cold-hardy enough in my area to overwinter the first year and then go to seed the second year. I use the leaves the first year and then allow some to go to seed to collect the seed to plant the following spring. I also get volunteers that grow each year from seeds I missed collecting. My favorite variety to grow is Italian flat-leaf parsley but curly-leaf (French) parsley is also popular. Hamburg parsley is grown for the edible root, similar to parsnips, but I prefer parsnips over parsley root, which has a stronger flavor. I plant my parsley in my front flower beds which get full sun, but parsley can also handle partial shade. Parsley does not dry well as it tends to lose its flavor, so I freeze mine to preserve it. I also try to have one growing during the winter in my Aerogarden. RosemaryRosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) is a heat-loving plant hardy to only zone 7 or 8, therefore I grow my rosemary in a pot and bring it inside for the winter. Rosemary can be difficult to overwinter indoors as it likes to absorb moisture from the air, not just from the roots. It also prefers dry soil. If you live where the heat is on all winter the air can get very dry in your house. Therefore, keeping a humidifier running all winter helped me to overwinter my rosemary. You can also mist your rosemary plant a couple of times a week. I also like to keep a backup plant around just in case one dies. My current rosemary has overwintered multiple seasons and is now roughly 3 feet tall. I preserve my rosemary by dehydration but since I bring it in for the winter I can also use it fresh all year as well. SageSage (Salvia officinalis) is hardy to zone 4 and overwinters well for me. The plant can get large, only 2 feet tall but it can have a big spread. It has shrub-like growth and I occasionally prune it back to keep it manageable. It tends to flower, which the bees love, but I often cut them back before they produce seeds. Cutting off the seed heads also makes the bush neater in appearance. I tend to preserve my sage by dehydrating. Many other types of sage are popular such as pineapple sage (not as cold hardy), golden sage, and purple sage. SavoryThere are two types of savory, summer (Satureja hortensis) and winter (Satureja montana) savory. Summer savory is an annual that dries well, and I often include it in my Italian seasoning blend. It is also traditionally paired with beans. Winter savory is hardy to zone 6 so I grow it as an annual or in pots. It has a stronger flavor and fragrance than summer savory but can be used similarly. Both types of savory like full sun and well-drained soil. ThymeCommon thyme (Thymus vulgaris) is hardy to zone 4-5 and I have successfully overwintered it in zone 4b during mild winters. Thyme is a low-growing herb commonly used as ground cover. Thyme prefers full sun with well-drained soil and can be grown from seed or by cutting off clumps that have spread from the main plant and rooted. Thyme is one of the main ingredients in my Italian Seasoning mix. Other varieties of thyme are also popular including lemon and lime thyme, which I like on chicken or fish, but I find these varieties harder to find, both seeds and in greenhouses as starts. TurmericTurmeric grows best in warmer climates where it is a perennial, but it can be grown in pots in colder areas. Turmeric can get very large, so it is best in a 10-gallon pot. Turmeric can be grown like ginger, except that turmeric gets bigger. I usually plant the rhizomes (roots) in 6-inch pots in late winter/early spring. Once they begin growing (which can take several months) I transplant them into 10-gallon fabric pots and place them outside once it has warmed up (June for me). I bring the pots into my garage in the fall and when the plants die back (usually around December-January), I dig up the roots. I break apart the roots into large pieces (you can usually see where new shoots want to start) and save the best ones for re-planting. I let the roots dry out for a week or two and then re-plant. The rhizomes of turmeric are used for culinary purposes, most often incorporated into curries. Turmeric can be used fresh, but I clean, peel, slice, and dehydrate most of my roots for long-term storage. References
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GoldenrodGoldenrod belongs to the genus Solidago, but some goldenrods have recently been classified into the Oligoneuron or Euthamia genus as well due to new relationships discovered via DNA sequencing. Goldenrods consist of over 100 flowering plants in the Asteraceae family, many of which are native to the United States. The various species can be difficult to distinguish as many look similar to each other, most have yellow flowers. I have at least two species on my property, I believe they are Canada Goldenrod (S. canadensis), which is very common, but several other common species look very similar. I also have Old Field Goldenrod (S. nemoralis), which is one of the shortest varieties and therefore easier to identify. Goldenrod and AllergiesMany people blame the goldenrods for their allergies in late summer/early fall. However, the pollen of goldenrod does not become airborne because it is too large to float through the air. It is also sticky, so it clings to insect pollinators. Instead, it is ragweed that causes most fall allergies because its pollen is airborne and it flowers at the same time as goldenrod, but its flowers are much less showy than goldenrod, and so it is much less noticeable. Goldenrods are very important for many insects, including pollinators, and are a great addition to any native garden. They tend to flower later in the season from late summer to early fall, so they are a great food for the bees just before winter when many other plants have finished flowering. Goldenrods also tend to like dry soils, although several grow well in wet environments, and most are very low maintenance. Goldenrod GallsGoldenrod galls are ball-shaped swellings found on goldenrod stems, including Canada Goldenrod (S. canadensis), Late Goldenrod (S. altissima), and Giant/Late Goldenrod (S. gigantea). These galls are caused by the goldenrod gall fly (Eurosta solidagnis). This fly completes its lifecycle only on goldenrods. A fly lays its eggs in the goldenrod stem in the spring. Once the eggs hatch, the larvae burrow inside and feed on the stem. The larvae’s saliva contains a chemical that mimics a natural plant hormone. This chemical hormone mimic makes the stem grow excessively around the larvae forming the gall. The galls do not harm the goldenrod and you generally see the flowers blooming around the gall. Once the plant dies back in the fall the gall turns hard and brown and the larva chews a hole to the surface of the gall, leaving a thin layer covering the entrance. The larva survives through winter, pupates in early spring inside the gall turning into an adult fly. The fly then emerges in mid-spring, pushing through the membrane left behind to cover the entrance. The goldenrod gall larvae are not necessarily safe inside the gall. There are two different species of wasps (Eurytoma obtusiventris and Eurytoma gigantea) that eat the larvae inside the gall as well as a species of beetle (Mordellistena unicolor) that eats the tissue inside the gall and occasionally eats the goldenrod gall larvae as well. The larvae in the galls also serve as a food source for birds including the downy woodpeckers and black-capped chickadees. Other goldenrods can also form galls caused by different insects including the goldenrod bunch gall midge (Rhopalomyia solidaginis) and the goldenrod gall moth (Gnorimoschema gallesolidaginis). Goldenrods of the MidwestAccording to BONAP the following goldenrod species are native to Wisconsin, and for many of them much of the Midwest and beyond as well. Euthamia GenusEuthamia graminfolia – Grass-Leaved Goldenrod – This goldenrod is not considered a true goldenrod which is why it has been moved to the Euthamia genus. This goldenrod has narrow leaves, giving it its name. It prefers sunny locations with moist soil but can be aggressive in these locations as it spreads via rhizomes. Many insects are attracted to this plant including the Goldenrod Soldier Beetle (Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus) and the Black Blister Beetle (Epicauta pensylvanica). Birds such as Eastern Goldfinches and Swamp Sparrows also eat the seeds. Generally 2-4 feet in height and can be confused with Great Plains Goldenrod. Euthamia gymnospermoides – Great Plains Goldenrod – This goldenrod prefers full sun but can adapt to moist or dry soils. It grows up to 3 feet tall and can be aggressive as it has both fibrous roots and rhizomes. This goldenrod looks similar to Grass-Leaved Goldenrod. Oligoneuron GenusOligoneuron album – Upland White Goldenrod or Prairie Goldenrod– This goldenrod is unusual for its white flowers and short height (12-24 inches tall). It prefers full sun with drier soil, even sandy, rocky soil. This goldenrod has been renamed multiple times due to genetic sequencing and is currently placed in the Oligoneuron genus but was formerly called Solidago ptarmicoides. Oligoneuron ohioense – Ohio Goldenrod – This goldenrod likes full sun but with wet soil, it even does well in clay soils that are not particularly well-drained. This goldenrod is threatened in some areas due to its requirement for wet, marshy soils. So this is a great one to plant if you have the right growing conditions and you are helping sustain its population. Oligoneuron riddellii – Riddell’s Goldenrod – This goldenrod used to be in the Solidago genus but was recharacterized as Oligoneuron. It needs full sun but preferably wet soil. Many insects enjoy this plant which also brings in insectivorous birds looking for food. Birds, such as sparrows and goldfinches, also feed on the seeds. Many bees are attracted to the flowers including bumble bees, carpenter bees, Andrenid bees, yellow-faced bees, and digger bees. It grows up to 40 inches tall. Oligoneuron rigidum (formerly S. rigida) – Stiff Goldenrod – Several Solidago species, including Stiff Goldenrod, have recently been moved to the Oligoneuron genus. This goldenrod has larger flowers than most other goldenrods. It can self-seed so if it is planted in an area where you do not want seedlings popping up everywhere then the seed heads should be clipped off. This flower likes sunny conditions but can tolerate dry to moist soil and can grow up to 4-5 feet tall. This goldenrod attracts many insects including butterflies and bees as well as birds. Solidago SpeciesSolidago altissima – Tall Goldenrod – This goldenrod prefers full sun and dry to moist soils. Very similar to Canada Goldenrod and Late Goldenrod and all three can be difficult to distinguish. This goldenrod also hosts many different gall-forming insects. Solidago caesia – Blue-Stemmed Goldenrod – This golden rod is not aggressive but prefers shade and moist soil. It is named for its blue or purple stem. Solidago canadensis – Canada Goldenrod – Similar to Tall Goldenrod and Late Goldenrod. This plant can get up to 5 feet tall and prefers full sun and dry to moist soil. This can be an aggressive spreader and is considered invasive in many European countries where it was introduced from North America. This is not a good choice for small flowerbeds or areas where you want to keep goldenrod from spreading but I love it on our property where we have large fields of it (unfortunately mixed in with several invasive species such as tansy) and no need to keep it contained. This species also hosts many gall-forming insects and we have found many galls on the goldenrod on our property. Solidago flexicaulis – Zigzag Goldenrod – This goldenrod looks different, particularly the leaves which are larger than many other goldenrods and the stem changes direction at every leaf node creating a zigzag effect. It can be aggressive so it should not be planted in areas where you want to contain the growth of your plants. This goldenrod also prefers more shady conditions with more moist soil than many other goldenrods. It can grow up to 3 feet tall. This goldenrod can also play host to insects that induce galls in the plant. Solidago gigantea – Late Goldenrod or Giant Goldenrod – This goldenrod prefers moist soil, can thrive in full sun to partial shade, and can reach heights of six feet. This goldenrod can easily be confused with Tall Goldenrod and Canada Goldenrod. Solidago hispida – Hairy Goldenrod – This goldenrod likes partial shade to full sun. It does well in dry sandy or gravely soil where it grows up to 3 feet tall. The leaves have tiny hairs on them giving this goldenrod its name. Solidago juncea – Early Goldenrod – This goldenrod is one of the earliest to bloom, as early as July in some places, hence the name, Early Goldenrod. It is medium sized from 2-4 feet tall and grows in moist to dry soils and likes sunny to partially sunny conditions. This goldenrod does spread by rhizomes so it may need to be thinned out occasionally and requires some effort if you wish to keep it contained. Solidago lepida – Western Canada Goldenrod – This goldenrod is common across Canada and the western United States. Wisconsin is the most eastern occurring location in the United states but it is not found to the south, except further west. This goldenrod can reach up to 5 feet. Solidago missouriensis – Missouri Goldenrod – Very similar to Early Goldenrod but does not spread by rhizomes so less aggressive. Does like full sun and more dry soils. Can grow up to 3 feet. One of the earlier blooming goldenrods, can be as early as mid-July. Solidago mollis – Velvety Goldenrod – This goldenrod prefers full sun with dry to moist soils. It is rare in Minnesota and Wisconsin and was listed as a Special Concern species in 1984 by Minnesota. Solidago nemoralis – Old Field Goldenrod or Gray Goldenrod – This is one of the shorter goldenrods, no more than 2 feet high. It will grow in poor, dry soils where other plants have difficulty getting established. Like most Goldenrods, S. nemoralis will attract butterflies and various pollinators. Solidago patula – Round-Leaved Goldenrod – This Goldenrod prefers shade and moist soils and can reach 3 feet in height. Solidago rugosa – Wrinkleleaf Goldenrod – This goldenrod is found through much of the eastern United States and Canada, as far west as Wisconsin in the North and Texas in the South. This goldenrod looks similar to Bog Goldenrod. Soldidago sciaphila – Cliff Goldenrod – A rare goldenrod listed as a Special Concern species by Minnesota in 1984. It is shorter in size than most others, no more than 30 inches high. This goldenrod likes dry soil with mostly sunny conditions. Grows well on rocky outcroppings, giving it its name. Solidago speciosa – Showy Goldenrod – This goldenrod is not an aggressive grower like others in the Solidago genus because it does not spread via rhizomes, so it is a good choice if you have a smaller flower bed that you do not want to be overrun with a single species. This flower does well in sunny conditions with more dry soil and can grow up to 4-5 feet high. This goldenrod attracts many insects including many types of bees such as sweat bees, bumble bees, carpenter bees, Andrenid bees, and more. Solidago uliginosa – Bog Goldenrod – This goldenrod forms tall, up to 4-5 foot spikes, which look very different from the flowers of most other goldenrods. This goldenrod prefers shade with moist soils hence the common name of Bog Goldenrod. Solidago ulmifolia – Elm-Leaved Goldenrod – This goldenrod is native to much of the eastern United States to the Midwest. They prefer moist soils in shade or partial shade and do self-seed prolifically. They also have rhizomes so spreading by both seed and root is likely. The leaves are similar to elm trees giving this goldenrod its name. This goldenrod grows to 2-4 feet tall. References
Growing CeleryI always thought that growing celery (Apium graveolens) was difficult and required very moist conditions. However, there are now many varieties of celery, many of which are better adapted to drier growing conditions. One detail I learned after growing celery is that the bunches you buy at the store are the inner part of the plant. Celery also grows many outer ribs that are much narrower than the inner part of the celery. These outer ribs can be used just like regular celery, I like them in soups or stews, or I blanch and dehydrate them for celery powder. Favorite VarietiesCelery is one plant that I prefer hybrid varieties over open-pollinated. I have tried several open-pollinated but found they do not grow as well and are more bitter than the hybrid varieties I have tried. One caveat with this is that I have not tried blanching celery (keeping the stalks in the dark during the growing season and before harvest) which is supposed to keep it less bitter. One of the first hybrid varieties I tried was Tango and I had great success. It grew very well and is a faster-maturing variety at approximately 85 days. The next hybrid I tried is Kelvin and since I have grown that variety, it is the only one I have grown. It is like Tango, vigorous and low maintenance, but I feel it does better with hot temperatures (please note, I live in Wisconsin and my “hot” temperatures are nowhere close to what other parts of the country can hit) and lower moisture levels. It is also a faster-maturing variety at about 80 days. I use drip tape or soaker hoses connected to a timer throughout my garden, so this does help keep the soil evenly moist. Starting Celery From SeedCelery is one of the first seeds I start, about ten weeks before the average last frost date, due to its slow germination and subsequent slow growth. Celery seeds require light to germinate, so press them gently into your seed starting mix when starting seeds. A heat mat can help germinate the seeds if your grow room is cool, 70-75°F is ideal. After seeds germinate you can take them off the heat mat, so they are at about 60-70°F. I start fertilizing with an all-purpose liquid fertilizer once they start getting their true leaves with ¼ strength fertilizer. You can transplant them to a larger pot when they have at least 2 true leaves if you started them in smaller grow trays, I use 3.5” pots. Celery likes cooler weather, but cold temperatures can cause premature bolting so keep them above 45°F when hardening them off. I transplant into my garden about a week after my average last frost date. Growing CeleryKeep celery mulched well to maximize moisture in the soil and keep weeds down. Using some form of irrigation on a timer is helpful to keep the soil consistently moist. Celery is a very heavy feeder so make sure your soil is healthy before planting. Compost or composted manure is a great addition to any soil. I also fertilize monthly throughout the growing season with a high-nitrogen fertilizer like blood meal or fish emulsion. Harvesting CeleryThe entire stalk (plant) of celery can be harvested whenever it is large enough for your use or alternative individual ribs can be removed and used as needed. I have found if I leave celery in the garden for the entire summer, plants often start bolting closer to fall. If you want to collect celery seed you can let some plants bolt, I find my growing season (zone 4b) is unfortunately too short to harvest seed. Celery DiseasesI have had some problems with celery that is misshapen and twisted with brown spots/streaks in the ribs. I have not had my celery tested for disease, but I believe it is either aster yellows, a disease caused by a phytoplasma, a bacteria-like organism, or leaf curl caused by anthracnose, a fungus. Aster yellows is transmitted by insects that feed on the plant so if you can control the insects, you can control the disease but once infected there is no way to treat the plant. Since I do not know whether I have a fungal disease or a phytoplasma disease, I choose to not treat my plants. Instead, when I find diseased plants, I pull them to prevent further spread, but I have never lost all my plants in a growing season. CautionVery rarely the foliage of celery and related plants (celeriac) can cause a reaction of the skin called photosensitivity or phytophotodermatitis. Compounds in celery, called psoralens, can cause blistering of the skin after the skin is exposed to sunlight. This is mostly seen in workers who harvest celery due to the extended amount of time they spend in contact with the vegetation. However, on sunny days it may be best to wear long sleeves and gloves when handling celery. ConclusionI highly recommend trying to grow celery in your garden. I was intimidated by growing celery because I thought it was something only commercial growers could reliably produce. But I find celery is one of the easier vegetables to grow in the garden and it has been a staple in my garden from the first year I tried it. References
Growing Artichokes in Northern ClimatesArtichokes (Cynara cardunculus variety scolymus or Cynara Scolymus) are mostly grown in California, but anyone with approximately 100 frost-free days can grow them. On the central coast of California, artichokes grow as perennials, usually the Green Globe variety. But in other parts of the country, artichokes are grown as an annual plant. Here in central Wisconsin, zone 4b I grow the Imperial Star variety, which was specifically bred to produce artichokes the first year from seed, and most years I can get a great crop before our first frost hits. Starting Artichokes from SeedArtichokes are one of the first plants I start, about 10 weeks before my average last frost date, although anytime between 8-12 weeks should work. The seeds are relatively large and tough and can take up to 3 weeks to germinate. They germinate best with a heat mat but if you have a warm room (70-80°F) a heat mat is not necessary. Artichokes have a taproot so if you start them in a small 6-cell tray you want to transplant them into a larger pot when they are still small. To get good flower bud production (the part you eat) they need 10 days of colder temperatures in the 40s while they are still seedlings. I move mine outdoors as soon as possible to achieve these temperatures but bring them in at night if it is going to dip below 40 and I have never had a problem with them forming buds. Growing ArtichokesTransplant your seedlings after the danger of frost has passed or protect them from frost with a frost cover. They get very large, roughly 3 feet across, so plan on lots of room for them to grow. They also like very fertile soil, especially high levels of nitrogen. You can use compost, blood meal, composted manure, or fish emulsion. I try to fertilize monthly but if your soil is poor an application every 2 weeks may be better. Artichokes need plenty of water once they start producing flower buds. I keep my plants mulched with either leaves, cardboard, straw, or wood chips. This keeps moisture in the soil and reduces weed pressure. We also use drip tape throughout our garden to keep the soil moist without overwatering. Wood chips can reduce nitrogen levels at the soil surface or throughout the soil if you till them in at the end of the season. We have healthy soil and add compost and composted manure every year, so we see no decline in growth. However, we do not use wood chips around young seedlings with shallower root growth. HarvestingWhen the flower buds are large, but the bracts are not fully open you can cut the artichokes off the plant at their base to harvest them. The main bud will mature first and then several side buds will form. You can also allow some buds to flower; they turn into a beautiful purple flower that looks like a thistle flower which makes sense since the genus Cynara consists of thistle-type plants. Eating ArtichokesMy favorite way to eat artichokes is to steam them for approximately 45 minutes. The smaller side shoot ones can be cooked for less time. Then remove the leaves individually and eat the fleshy base until you get to the center, heart of the artichoke. The inedible, woody, spiny choke on top of the heart is removed and then the heart can be eaten. I like to eat the fleshy part of the leaves and the heart with garlic-herb goat cheese but there are lots of other ways to eat artichokes. ConclusionI was very intimidated to grow artichokes for the first time as I, like many people, thought artichokes could not be grown in northern climates. However, artichokes are one of the easiest vegetables to grow in the garden. Once planted, they are very low maintenance, and due to their spiky, thistle-like growth are deer and rabbit-resistant. I have also never had any insect damage, making them one of the easiest plants to grow. References
Jerusalem ArtichokesIntroductionJerusalem artichokes (Helianthus tuberosus) are related to sunflowers (Helianthus annuus) giving them their alternative name, sunchoke. They produce tubers that can be dug up and eaten. Jerusalem artichokes are neither from Jerusalem nor are they closely related to artichokes (both are part of the Asteraceae family but do not share a genus). Instead, sunchokes are a native North American plant that the Native Americans ate. Jerusalem artichokes are very easy to grow, plant the tubers one time and they will grow as a perennial year after year. Many people claim Jerusalem artichokes are invasive, which is not accurate since they are native, although they can become invasive in regions where they were not originally native. Jerusalem artichokes, however, can be very aggressive. Therefore, do not plant sunchokes where you do not want them to spread or expect to devote a significant amount of time to digging up tubers to keep the plants contained. I planted my Jerusalem artichokes outside my garden with plenty of space to mow around them. We have had them for approximately 6 years and while they have spread slightly, they have mostly remained contained to one area. The tubers of Jerusalem artichokes grow underground and can be eaten raw or cooked. Before eating large amounts of sunchokes for the first time, you should be aware that they store their carbohydrates as inulin. Inulin is considered a prebiotic because is not digested in the intestines but instead feeds beneficial bacteria. This is thought to help maintain digestive health and may be beneficial for diabetics as the inulin is not broken down to sugar like many other starches. However, the major side effect of inulin is the production of gas by bacteria in the gut as they break down the starch. Therefore, a common, and well-deserved nickname for Jerusalem artichokes is “fartichokes” and only small amounts should be ingested first to see how your body reacts. Overconsumption can lead to painful bloating, gas, and diarrhea. Other foods that contain large amounts of inulin include onions, artichokes, asparagus, and chicory. However, these foods are rarely consumed in quantities large enough to cause gastric distress. How to Grow Jerusalem ArtichokesYou can buy Jerusalem Artichoke tubers from many seed suppliers, I purchased them from Jung Seed but Fedco Bulbs also sells them. They can be planted in most soil types, but if your soil is especially poor amend with compost or composted manure first. You can plant the tubers in early spring as soon as the soil can be worked or in warmer climates they can be planted in the fall. They are very cold hardy, and grow well for me in central Wisconsin, zone 4b, but will grow from zones 3-9. Plant the tubers about 6 inches deep, roughly 12 inches to 2 feet apart. We planted six tubers and eventually ended up with a patch roughly 4x6 feet which is more than enough for our small family of three. The plants grow very tall, 10-12 feet high, so do not plant them where they will shade other plants that need full sun. I try to keep my bed mulched to reduce weeds but since sunchokes are vigorous plants they grow well even with high weed pressure. To increase tuber size, you can cut off the tops of the plants when they begin to flower. In my zone, we only sometimes see full flowering since sunchokes flower late in the season. If you do let them flower, however, they are beautiful sunflower-like flowers. The flowers are smaller than most sunflowers and multi-stemmed. Harvesting Jerusalem ArtichokesUsually, Jerusalem artichokes are harvested in late fall after frost and the foliage has died back. You can dig them up sooner, but the cold is supposed to improve the flavor of the tubers. We usually dig the tubers with a shovel, but you can also use a garden fork to loosen the soil and pull out the tubers by the stem. Harvesting all the tubers is almost impossible; any remaining behind will grow into next year's crop. Unfortunately, Jerusalem artichokes do not store well so it is recommended that you only pick as many as you can eat in a couple of weeks. I have also sliced, blanched, and frozen or dehydrated them to use later. I have also tried fermenting them (you can find recipes online) but I had mold grow the first time and was not a huge fan of their taste the second time when they fermented successfully. How to Eat Jerusalem ArtichokesJerusalem artichokes are knobby and should be peeled or scrubbed well to remove the dirt. They can be eaten raw, for example, sliced onto a salad, but my preferred method of eating them is cooked. I like to slice and boil them slightly to soften them and then sauté them in cast iron with shallot or onion. I find Jerusalem artichokes to have a strong flavor, somewhat nutty, and unique. For our family, sunchokes are a good supplement to our food supply, especially since after planting, they are very low maintenance. ReferencesCox, Jeff. 1988. How to Grow Vegetables Organically. Rodale’s Organic Gardening Magazine, Rodale Press, Emmaus, Pennsylvania. Growing Great OnionsIntroductionOnions (Allium cepa) were one of the first plants to be domesticated, likely over 4000 years ago, for both culinary and medicinal purposes (1). Various onion species are native to much of the northern hemisphere and parts of the southern hemisphere as well (1). Onions belong to the Allium genus along with many other familiar species including garlic (A. sativum), shallots (A. cepa, previously A. ascalonicum), leeks (A. ampeloprasum), chives (A. schoenoprasum), garlic chives (A. tubersosum) and scallions or green, bunching, or spring onions, consisting of several different species including A. cepa (1). Selecting the Correct Day Length Onion To grow great onions, you must know what type grows best in your location. Although growing conditions are important, onions form their bulbs in response to day length. Onions sense the number of hours of daylight and use that as a signal to switch their energy from leaf growth to bulb growth. Daylight hours are based on your latitude and the number of daylight hours needed for onions varies by the variety of onion. There are three types of onions, long-day, intermediate-day, and short-day. Johnny’s Selected Seeds has a map available online to help you determine which types of onions will grow best at your latitude. You can also look up your exact latitude on this website. I am located at 44.7° latitude, so I only grow long-day onions. Long-Day Onions Long-day onions are grown in the northern United States, roughly from Pennsylvania to Oregon (37°-47° latitude) and northwards. They start forming bulbs when days reach roughly 14-16 hours long. Many long-day onions make good storage onions although some sweet varieties that traditionally do not store well can also be grown. These onions are usually planted in early spring and mature in late summer to early fall. Intermediate-Day Onions Intermediate-day onions grow best from 32°-42° latitude, approximately from northern California to Virginia and south to northern Texas and South Carolina, however, they will bulb in almost any growing area. They start producing bulbs when the days reach approximately 12-14 hours long. These onions tend to be sweet onions, which generally do not store as well. If you are further north you want to plant these in the spring but if you live further south with mild winters you can plant in the fall and harvest in the spring or early summer. Short-Day Onions Short-day onions are grown from approximately 25°-35° latitude and start forming bulbs when days are roughly 10-12 hours long. These onions grow best in Florida to southern California and are usually planted in the fall to overwinter and mature in the late spring or early summer. Types of OnionsOnce you know your day length you can decide what type of onion you want to grow. There are many varieties, but they can be lumped into several groups including red onions, yellow onions, white onions, bunching onions (AKA scallions, green, or spring onions), and sweet onions. I live in Wisconsin so I only grow long-day onions and I mostly grow onions for storage because I also have walking onions which I can use throughout the growing season since they overwinter. I also grow some scallions for use throughout the growing season (eventually the walking onions get woody when they set their bulbs on top). Traditionally yellow onions are used for cooking and make the best storage onions but there are quite a few varieties of red onions that also store well. I prefer red onions for pickling and grilling but frequently use them for cooking as well since I grow a lot of them. Red onions are also traditionally used raw on salads. White onions tend to be milder than red or yellow onions and are often eaten both raw and cooked. I have never grown sweet onions because they tend not to store well although for many people this is their favorite variety and I have plans to try them at some point in the future. Sweet onions are the mildest onions and therefore are often eaten raw (I grew up occasionally eating an onion, cheese, and mustard sandwich!) but can be cooked as well. My Favorite OnionsYellow OnionsI always grow Patterson (F1) onions as they traditionally store well for 6 months or more. I have also started growing New York Early (open-pollinated) onions and they are earlier than other varieties I have grown, and they also grow very large for me. They do not store as long, approximately 3 months, but since they finish earlier, I just use these first while I am waiting for the better storage onions to finish growing. I am also trying a new variety this year, Talon (F1), and can update you on their growth later this fall (2024). Another open-pollinated variety that has grown well for me is Yellow of Parma and they also store well. Stuttgarter (open-pollinated) is a yellow onion variety that I have grown in the past, it stores well, and you can often find this variety as sets, although I have more difficulty finding seeds which is why I switched to growing Patterson. White OnionsThe only white onion I have tried growing is Southport White Globe (open-pollinated). These only form small bulbs but I like them when I only need a little onion for a recipe. They can also be picked young as spring onions but are some of the best white storage onions available. Red OnionsI have grown several varieties of red onions, and these always seem to do better for me than yellow onions. Redwing (F1), Red Bull (F1), and Red Wethersfield (open-pollinated) are all good storage onions that grow well for me. This year I am also trying Red Geneva (open-pollinated), Red Mountain (F1) as a Red Wing replacement (I could not find Red Wing seed this year), and Ruby Red (open-pollinated). Scallions (AKA Bunching, Green, or Spring Onions)Bunching onions are very easy to grow because they grow quickly, and you do not need to worry about bulb formation. I have had good luck with Evergreen, Tokyo Long White, and Red Beard bunching onions, all open-pollinated varieties. The Evergreen bunching onions are also hardy enough that they can overwinter in some areas (for me in Central Wisconsin, zone 4b I have had mixed results overwintering). Sweet OnionsI have yet to try growing sweet onions, but I have heard Ailsa Craig, Yellow Sweet Spanish, and Walla Walla, are all good long-day open-pollinated varieties and on my list to try growing someday. Growing Onions from Sets, Seedlings, or SeedsOnion SetsGrowing onions from sets (dry, pre-started bulbs) is the easiest way to grow onions and the easiest to find at most greenhouses and home improvement-type stores. The disadvantage of sets is that they are more likely to bolt, especially the larger sets, making the bulbs woody and prone to rotting (2). I have also found onions grown from sets are less likely to get to a large size. Sets are made by starting onions from seed and then disrupting their growth when they are just starting to form bulbs. When you plant the small bulbs, they wake up from dormancy and resume growing. Sets are also more expensive to buy than seed. Onion SeedlingsA second option is buying onion seedlings or transplants. These can sometimes be found in local greenhouses but are generally harder to source. I have not bought onion transplants from Dixondale Farms because I start all my onions from seed, but I have heard great reviews from other gardeners about them. One advantage of suppliers like Dixondale is that you can have the seedlings shipped if you cannot find transplants locally and they have a bigger selection of varieties than most greenhouses. The advantage of transplants in general is that you do not have interrupted growth after bulb formation like you do with sets, so your onions are less likely to bolt and you are more likely to get large bulbs. However, like sets, transplants are more expensive than seeds. Onion SeedsThe last option for those who like to start their plants is to use seeds. These have the same advantages as buying seedlings, but you generally have many more options for varieties of onions if you are willing to buy seeds online. One disadvantage of seeds is that onion seeds lose viability very quickly and it is the one seed type I always try to buy new each year. Although if you buy sets or transplants you also need to buy new ones each year. I have successfully used one and even two-year-old seeds, but germination is generally 50-75% lower after even one year. If you do save onion seeds, it is best to store them in the refrigerator or freezer in an airtight container with a little silica gel to absorb moisture. Starting Onions from SeedIf you start onions from seed, they are generally started early as they are cold hardy, and so can be planted out early. I start my onions at the end of February, which is eight weeks before my average last frost date in mid-May (2). Onion seeds are very easy to start assuming the seeds are fresh. As stated above onion seeds lose viability very quickly so you generally want to buy new seeds each year. You can also plant onion seeds close together as they are easy to separate when transplanting. I sprinkle quite a few in a 6-cell or 3-inch pot. Cover with about a 1/2" inch of moistened light potting soil (like Pro-Mix) or seed starting mix. Bottom water as needed to keep the soil moist but not sopping wet. You can also use a humidity dome to help keep them moist. My seeds usually germinate in a week or two with a heat mat, but it can take up to 3 weeks to see germination. Onion seeds will germinate in colder temperatures so a heat mat is not necessary, but it will speed germination. Start fertilizing when the seedlings have fully emerged and are about an inch high with half or quarter-strength liquid fertilizer (nitrogen-based fertilizer is best but an all-purpose one will work fine as well) and continue to fertilize weekly with a dilute solution. Once the seedlings are over about four or five inches, I trim the tops to keep them a more manageable size. Start hardening them off about a month before your last frost date and transplant them as soon as the weather cooperates. I try to get mine transplanted by mid to late April, but we sometimes still have snow at this time which delays planting. For more information on seed starting in general you can refer back to my earlier blog post on the basics of seed starting. Planting OnionsTo plant onions, sets are the easiest. Simply dig a shallow trench, pop the onion sets down about 4-6 inches apart, and cover with soil so they are just below the surface. Rows should be about 12 inches apart, but I plant so many onions I often plant them closer to approximately 6-inch rows. If you have fertile soil amended with compost or composted manure, close spacing should not be a problem. I like to mulch between the rows with something like shredded leaves. I find onions are a pain to weed so getting some mulch in early to reduce weed pressure is helpful. To plant seedlings, either ones you grew or purchased, I find using a dibble (AKA dibber) is helpful. A dibble is simply a sharpened stake attached to a handle that is also useful when planting bulbs, garlic, etc. Once my onion bed is prepared (rake out, mix in compost, fertilizer, etc.), I lay down the mulch. I used to mulch after I planted the onions, but it is a pain to get the mulch around the tiny transplants without covering them up. Last year I mulched first before making my holes and it was much easier. I use the dibble to push a hole through the mulch and soil. Pop in the seedlings and tamp around to firm the soil around the transplants. Onions like full sun, and if you have heavy soil a raised bed will help with soil drainage and improve your bulb size. I like to use nitrogen-rich fertilizer monthly throughout the growing season such as fish emulsion or blood meal. Stop fertilizing when the necks of the onions start softening before they fall over. Once they fall over, they are done growing and bulb size will no longer increase. Harvesting OnionsOnions are ready to be harvested when the necks soften and about half the tops fall over (3). You can knock the rest of the tops over, wait a few days, and then harvest all of them (2) or I just wait until they fall over naturally and harvest every few days. Harvest the onions and shake excess dirt off but do not clean them. After harvesting, storage onions need to be cured for about 2 weeks or until they are completely dried. I like to hang them upside down on a rack or lay them down on newspaper or cardboard in my garage. Do not allow them to be in direct sunlight for too long or they will turn green and make sure they are well-ventilated, or they may rot (3). After they are completely dried, I cut off the tops and store the bulbs in cardboard produce boxes (holes for ventilation) or mesh bags. I store my onions in my garage which is heated in the winter to about 45° F and many last until spring. Check your onions every few weeks to throw out any that have gotten soft or started rotting. Saving Onion SeedI like to save onion seeds, particularly from my heirloom Zebrune shallots since they are open-pollinated but I also collected a mix of red onion seeds last year (2023). Onions will cross-pollinate so if you are saving seed and want to keep it pure you want to make sure you only have a single variety flowering at the same time nearby. However, onions and leeks, for example, are different species and should not cross-pollinate. Onions are biennial so if you want to save seed you have to save bulbs from the previous year and plant them out in the spring. Because they already went through one growing season they should quickly flower and go to seed. The red onions I planted last year were from bulbs I grew in 2022 but I did not keep them separate so I likely had a mix of varieties plus many were also hybrid so they may not be like their parents. However, I like to experiment, so I planted the seeds this year and so far, the seeds look like they have a high level of germination and are very vigorous. ConclusionOnions are one of my favorite vegetables to grow, I think because they store well over winter without any extra work. You do not need to blanch and freeze them like many other vegetables, just keep them cool and dry. I do like to dehydrate some to grind up for onion powder and I have not needed to buy garlic or onion powder in years. I also like to pickle some to use on hamburgers and salads. I grow as many onions as I can handle, because honestly as much as I love harvesting the onions at the end of the season, the planting and weeding can be back-breaking work, but well worth it. References
Milkweeds and MonarchsThe monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) is one of the most well-known butterflies but unfortunately, populations have been declining for years (1) though they are not yet at a critical level. Although other butterflies, such as the Karner blue, are at risk of becoming extinct and deserve more attention than they currently receive, the monarch is what I consider a “gateway” insect. Just like many people consider chickens the “gateway” animal on hobby farms (once you get chickens it often leads to acquiring other farm animals), the monarch is a butterfly that receives a lot of attention and leads people to understand the importance of saving other butterflies and insects that may not be as showy or pretty but still serve an important ecological niche. I will try to focus on other important insects in future blog posts but for this post, I will focus on monarchs. One of the reasons monarch butterflies may be harder to conserve than other species of insects is that they are migratory. Therefore, you need to focus on habitat conservation not just where they lay eggs and live as caterpillars but also where they overwinter as adults. Monarchs that live east of the Rocky Mountains migrate to Mexico (and sometimes the southern US) in the fall (2). Monarchs that live in the Pacific states often overwinter in California, but some also migrate to Mexico (2). The overwintered butterflies lay eggs in early spring where they spent the winter, those eggs hatch, and turn into adults, who then migrate back north into the United States and Canada (2). Most people are aware that the larvae (caterpillars) of monarch butterflies only eat milkweed. However, many people (myself included before a few years ago) may not realize that multiple milkweed species exist that can support monarch butterflies. Milkweeds belong to the Apocynaceae family, mostly the Asclepias genus, which contains over 200 species of milkweed plants, 73 of which are native to the United States (3). The Cynanchum, Sarcostemma, and Calotropis genera also contain some milkweed species. Milkweeds are named for their milky sap, which contains glycosides, which are toxic to humans and other species but not to monarchs. The toxins accumulate in the monarch making them unpalatable to predators. I grew up with common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) in Pennsylvania and it is also what primarily grows around my house in Wisconsin. I started butterfly weed (Asclepias tuberosa) from seed two years ago and planted it in my front flower beds. Also, just FYI, a great place to buy native plants and seeds, either online or in person, is Prarie Moon Nursery. I also discovered last year we have swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata) growing around our pond. Even though multiple milkweed species can support monarch caterpillars, is there one or more species that are the preferred food source? This is important for homeowners who want to help increase monarch butterfly populations but may not have the space to plant multiple species in their flower gardens. A research study of nine different milkweed species in midwestern Iowa by Pocius et al. discovered that the greatest number of monarch eggs were found on common milkweed and swamp milkweed (4). These milkweeds also had a high level of caterpillar survival. They also discovered that monarch caterpillars that hatched from eggs laid on honeyvine milkweed (Cynanchum laeve) and tall green milkweed (Asclepias hirtella) had the lowest survival rate (4) so these species would not be recommended to be planted. Another consideration for homeowners is how easily the milkweeds can be grown and transplanted. You can access the complete chart here, but other considerations include habitat, for example, swamp milkweed requires a wet location and common milkweed tends to spread aggressively via runners and therefore may not be the best choice for homeowners who want their milkweed to stay contained in a flower bed. A last consideration when planting milkweed is what species is native to your area. Ideally, you want to plant native species whenever possible as they will be the most beneficial to the insects in your area and the species that will grow the best in your area. To determine this, I suggest visiting The Biota of North America Program (BONAP) website (5) where you can find plant species based on a variety of criteria including genus. Here is the link to the Asclepias (milkweed) genus maps to help you determine which milkweed species are native to your area. As you can see common milkweed is native (dark green) to much of the eastern and midwestern United States extending into some southern states as well. If you do not already have native milkweeds growing in your gardens, I hope you will consider planting some to help the monarch butterfly recover in population. Many people also enjoy raising monarchs indoors and releasing them. Although this is a noble idea, this practice can cause the spread of a monarch parasite, Ophyrocystis elekrtoscirrha (OE) (5, 6). According to Morris et al., wild monarchs in Arizona had a 4% infection rate overall while farm-raised monarchs had a 29% rate (7). Although this protozoan (single-celled eukaryote) parasite occurs naturally outdoors, it can contaminate the equipment you use to raise the caterpillars and prevent them from developing properly into adults. Just like many diseases spread more easily among animals in captivity, the same can occur with monarchs raised indoors in close quarters. Additionally, data from Morris et al. in which monarch butterflies, both wild and farm-raised, were tagged and then recovered following migration suggests that farm-raised monarchs are less likely to successfully migrate (7). Farm-raised monarchs may be less fit, perhaps due to a loss of genetic diversity, than wild monarchs and thereby less likely to survive (6). Therefore, if you wish to make a difference for monarchs and other native insects, plant native vegetation and refrain from using pesticides as much as possible. References
My Favorite Seed CompaniesI buy from multiple seed companies because the various seeds all serve different purposes in my garden. I love open-pollinated/heirloom and hybrid seeds for different reasons. I love trying different varieties of seeds to see which grow best in my garden. I love different colors and tastes of different varieties of the same vegetables. Therefore, I buy from many seed companies. The following seed companies are the ones I buy from most frequently but are not listed in order of preference, I purchase from them depending on my needs at that time. I also try to order from companies that are based further north in the United States (my one exception is Baker Creek). I do this because the colder climate companies tend to have a greater seed selection that will perform well in my shorter growing season in central Wisconsin. If you are a Southern gardener, I would still recommend checking out the companies I like (most companies try to get a selection of seeds that perform well in different climates) but also look for some great seed companies that are further south and maybe even local to you. Lastly, I have generally had great germination with all of these seed companies, so I highly recommend them. Baker Creek Heirloom Seed CompanyI like Baker Creek because they only sell heirloom and open-pollinated varieties. These types of varieties are essential for anyone who wants to save seeds as they will always grow true if they do not cross-pollinate in your garden. I love saving tomato and pepper seeds, so Baker Creek is one of the main companies I buy them from. I also love trying different varieties of tomatoes and peppers and Baker Creek always has new and unusual varieties available. Baker Creek is also the last seed company I purchase from that still sends one or more free seed packets out with orders over a specific amount (3 free packets on a $65 order, 2 free packets on a $35 order, and 1 free pack on a $10 order) and they have free shipping on all seed orders. Also, their free catalog is pretty great but the larger one you can purchase is amazing! Fedco SeedsFedco is based out of Maine and so fits my criteria for a Northern climate seed company. They always have a large selection of shorter-season seed varieties which are perfect for my gardening zone. They also have a tree division from which I have purchased many bare-root fruit trees and bushes. Although Fedco offers heirloom and open-pollinated varieties they also offer hybrid seeds which I prefer when I am looking for disease resistance, bolt resistance, or another trait that can be harder to find in heirloom seeds. Although hybrid seeds can be expensive Fedco’s prices are reasonable, and they do have free shipping on orders over $50. Fedco also offers organic versions of many seeds if that is important. One last note about Fedco is that they are very open about where their seeds come from. They utilize a numbering system to show where their seeds are coming from such as small seed farmers (which includes Fedco staff), family-owned companies, companies not part of a larger conglomerate, and multinational companies that are or are not engaged in genetic engineering. This allows you to purchase seeds openly based on personal ethics. Fecdo has also recently decided to drop all Syngenta-owned seeds, even though many of them are popular hybrids, because Syngenta manufactures neonicotinoid insecticides which are known to negatively affect bees and other beneficial insect populations. In 2006 they also dropped all seeds from Seminis/Monsanto for similar ethical reasons relating to sustainability. This open-business practice is rare among seed companies, and probably most non-seed companies as well. Rohrer SeedsI like Rohrer Seeds for a variety of reasons, one of which is that they are based out of my home state of Pennsylvania and my family purchased their seeds when I was growing up. They have very reasonably priced seeds, you do have to pay for shipping, but their shipping is also very reasonably priced. Rohrer used to have a good selection of their branded seeds for 99 cents a packet. Those seeds have mostly increased to $1.99 a packet but that is still the cheapest per pack of all my favorite seed companies. Another reason I like Rohrer is that they sell seeds from other companies as well. So, I can get seeds from Lake Valley, Rene’s Garden, Livingston, Seed Savers Exchange, Baker Creek, and more, all in one location. The last reason I like Rohrer Seeds is that they have great customer service. I used to put in two separate orders, one for my vegetable seeds for my family garden and one for flower seeds that I would grow to sell on Etsy (back when I sold online). The workers at Rohrer would realize that the two orders were being shipped to the same place and ship them together and either refund me the shipping cost for one order or send free seed packets as an apology if they could not refund the shipping. I never expected to be refunded or given free seeds since I had to order separately due to my orders being personal versus business purchases. Although I no longer buy from them for business use, I still get many of my staple vegetable seeds from Rohrer. Johnny's Selected SeedsJohnny’s is another Maine-based company and probably the most expensive seed company I order from for both the cost of the seed packs as well as for shipping costs. So why do I still list Johnny’s as one of my favorite seed companies? Their seeds are of great quality and although they have some heirloom seeds available their hybrid selection is fantastic. If I have a problem with a disease in my garden (for example, one year I lost all my cucumber plants to downy mildew), Johhny’s is the first place I will look to see if disease-resistant varieties are available. Johnny’s also has a great selection of other gardening supplies including plant stakes, frost and shade covers, gardening tools, soil blockers, and more. They also occasionally hold informational webinars about gardening, usually about their specific varieties, which is a great opportunity to learn more about the growing conditions and properties of their seeds. MIgardenerMIgardener is based out of Michigan, another northern climate state. They are very similar to Baker Creek in that they only sell heirloom and open-pollinated seeds, but they are a smaller company with (maybe?) less selection although they have been growing steadily. Their seeds are very reasonably priced, and the company seems dedicated to keeping costs down for customers. All their seed packs are $2, and they have free shipping on orders $20 and more. They do not have a paper seed catalog which is one of the ways they can keep costs down and provide great prices for their companies. I buy many of my tomato and pepper seeds from MIgardener since I know they are open-pollinated, and I can easily save seeds from their varieties. ConclusionIf you have a seed company you love, please let me know in the comments below or send me an email. I always love trying out new seed companies! My Favorite Gardening Tools
Maple SyrupingWe have been collecting maple (and occasionally birch) sap for about five years and boiling it to make syrup. This article is targeted to small, backyard syrup producers, collecting from ~2-12 taps. However, I will also discuss different methods to collect sap and make maple syrup if you wish to increase production. Why Make Maple Syrup?The truth is I do not eat maple syrup except for a taste once a year when we make it (I have difficulty regulating blood sugar). So why do I love to make syrup, even when I cannot enjoy the final product? The simple truth is that it is a fun, unique experience that occurs at a time of year when not too much else is going on. Maple syrup production occurs in early spring, and this is a time on our property when we have fewer tasks to do compared to late spring through fall. Collecting sap and boiling it down while you relax outside by a fire is a unique, almost magical experience that I highly recommend to anyone who has the chance. It is easy to buy real maple syrup, especially where I live because so many people make their own and sell extra. But real maple syrup is expensive and for good reasons. It is a time-consuming process to collect and boil down the sap, which generally has a 2-3% sugar content, into syrup which is 66-68% sugar. So, making maple syrup yourself may save money (if you do not count your time) depending on your setup and how you boil it down. If you have access to wood on your property you can boil it down for free (again, not counting your labor) but otherwise expect to pay for wood or propane to use as fuel. You can also make an evaporator relatively cheaply, if you are handy, or buy a large pot or flat evaporator pan to use over a wood or propane fire, to minimize expenses. However, unless you invest in a reverse osmosis system (more on that later) the one thing you cannot minimize is time. How Much Sap Do You Need?The general rule of thumb is that a 40:1 ratio of sap to syrup is needed if collected from sugar maples (other maples are closer to 50:1 and other trees can be tapped like birch and walnut but have even higher ratios). This means if you want to make a gallon of syrup each year you need to collect at least 40 gallons of sap. Larger producers now mostly use reverse osmosis systems first to eliminate as much water as possible and therefore increase sugar content before boiling the remaining sap with an evaporator to the final required sugar concentration for syrup. You can also collect sap from other trees to make syrup, including birch trees but the ratio is approximately 110:1, so you need over 100 gallons of birch sap to make a gallon of birch syrup. The syrup is also darker and more savory tasting than maple syrup, even with similar ending sugar content, and is often used as a glaze to cook salmon or pork. One advantage of birch trees though is that the sap tends to run after maple so by the time you are done collecting maple sap you can remove your taps and re-use them on any appropriately sized birch trees you may have. Walnut trees (Juglans), including black walnut, butternut, English walnut, and others can also be used. We have made birch syrup for a couple of years but prefer maple. We also have some black walnut trees on our property but have not tapped them as they are still too small. The color of almost done maple syrup (left) is much lighter than birch syrup (right). Timing MattersMaple syrup is always made in spring because that is when the sap starts running in trees. During the summer, trees conduct photosynthesis in their leaves. Photosynthesis is the process whereby trees and other plants take light energy and convert it to sugar. They use the energy from the sun plus carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and convert the carbon dioxide to organic sugars. In the process, they also release oxygen, which is very lucky for us! The tree uses the sugar to grow but extra sugar is pumped down from the leaves into the roots for storage over winter. The following spring when the days warm up, the sap starts running. The roots take up water from the ground and move it up the tree, taking all that stored sugar with it. Sugar is the energy source that the trees use to bud out and grow leaves that spring. Once temperatures start warming up to ~40°F during the day but still dipping below freezing at night, the sap will start running. In central Wisconsin, this is usually March into early April. This year (2024), however, we had a huge warm-up in the first couple weeks of February and again later in February, and many people decided to tap early (this is the earliest we have ever collected sap and made syrup). The season can be as short as a couple of weeks or as long as a month or more, but when the days and nights start getting too warm, the sap can go bad in the heat, and it also gets bitter. Usually, when the maple tree buds start swelling, this is a sign you should pull your taps. Supplies and EquipmentTrees – If you want to make maple syrup you need maple trees. Any larger maple tree works but sugar maples have the highest starting concentration of sugar in their sap. We have mostly red maples and silver maples on our property and measurements with a refractometer show a concentration of about 2% sugar in the sap. This can vary from tree to tree, even within the same species, and the beginning versus the end of the sap season. Generally, you want your trees to be at least 10 inches in diameter at 4-5 feet above the ground. You can put in 2 taps if your tree is over 20 inches in diameter. (1) I see many people putting in multiple taps in trees that probably should not have more than one, I prefer to put the health of the tree first. There are other trees that you can tap for syrup, but maple, birch, and walnut species appear to be the top three most tapped trees. Drill – You will need a drill, preferably battery-powered unless you are only tapping trees close to an electrical source. Some people even use hand drills, but I would not recommend this unless you are only tapping a few trees or have younger people to help drill. We use a 5/16th drill bit because our spiles are 5/16th in size. They also come in 7/16th and 3/16th inch sizes. Spiles/Spouts/Taps, Tubing, and Bags/Buckets – You will need tubing that fits your spile size. This year we switched from collecting sap in bags to using longer tubing into 5-gallon buckets. We have yet to tap more than a dozen trees so we can easily collect our sap by hand but if we ever expand, we will try using gravity flow to funnel the sap from multiple trees into one or more larger collection vessels. Most of our land is flat so this is probably only an option for a small section of our woods behind our house which only has about 8 tappable trees. Many commercial operations use a vacuum system to collect more sap and it does not require gravity to keep the sap flowing into a large collection bucket. If you are collecting sap in the bags or buckets that hang on the tree you only need a short, 1–2-foot, piece of tubing for each tap, or if you can hang your bag/bucket on the spile you do not need tubing at all. This year we started collecting sap in food-grade five-gallon buckets with a lid that we drilled a hole into to insert the tubing. Because we place the buckets on the ground, and you usually drill tap holes a few feet up this method requires longer-length tubing, but it is easier to collect and keeps more debris out of the sap. Although more expensive, the buckets also reduce plastic waste because they are more reusable than plastic bags and easier to clean out between collections. We use plastic spiles, but you can also find more durable metal ones. We now buy tubing in bulk from a local maple syrup supply company (The Maple Dude) and have found that the tubing comes in rigid or semi-rigid types. We much prefer the semi-rigid as it is easier to get over the end of the spiles. Tubing (5/16") can be bought in bulk (left), spiles, also known as spouts and taps (center) come in plastic (pictured) or metal, and water storage jugs (right) are a great way to store smaller amounts (6 gallons) of sap. Rubber Mallet – We use a rubber mallet to pound the spiles into the trees after drilling. 70% Isopropyl Alcohol – We use 70% isopropanol to sterilize the drill bit before drilling and the spiles before inserting them into the tree. Thermos of Hot Water – A thermos of hot water is helpful to warm up the end of the tubing before you place it over the spile. This is especially useful if you have rigid tubing! Even with the hot water we sometimes have difficulty fitting the rigid tubing over the spile. Rope and Bungee Cords – These can be helpful if you are using the collection bags, we have had the wind pull the bags far enough away that the tubing falls out. We usually tie the bags to a tree branch if possible, instead of hanging it off the spile for more security and then wrapping a bungee around the top of the bag and the tree to help hold it in place. Filters – You will likely want at least 2 different kinds of filters. A sap filter is used after collecting the sap to remove any sticks, insects, or bark debris from the sap. A finishing filter (often with a pre-filter inserted) is used for a final filter of the syrup at the end of the boil. Evaporator/Pan or Large Pot - Last year we invested in a StarCat wood-fired evaporator (the smallest one they make) from Smoky Lake Maple Products that has saved us lots of time! Before the StarCat we used a 10-gallon brewing pot on a propane burner which worked well but took 12-14 hours to boil down a 10-gallon batch plus the added expense of buying propane. Fuel – We used propane for several years but as prices and our sap collection volume increased, we decided to invest in a wood-fired evaporator since we have lots of hardwood available on our property. We now use wood to boil the sap until the volume gets too low for the evaporator. We then transfer the sap to a pot over the propane burner until it is just about done, then finish boiling it on the stove in our house. Reverse Osmosis System – Another improvement to increase efficiency is to invest in a reverse osmosis system to save time boiling the sap. Small backyard syrup producers can buy reverse osmosis systems that can concentrate sap from about 2% sugar to 4%. This might not seem like a huge difference, but it doubles the sugar concentration which should decrease the boiling time by half. If you have 100 gallons of 2% sugar the RO system can get it down to 50 gallons of 4% sugar. So instead of a 24-hour boil (or more), you might be able to get it done in a more reasonable 12-hour day. The wood-fired StarCat Evaporator (left and center) is much more efficient than our old method of using a 10-gallon brew pot on a propane burner (right). How to Tap Trees and Make Maple Syrup
ConclusionIf you get the chance to collect sap and make syrup or even help with someone else’s collection and boil, I highly recommend it. If you have any questions, please feel free to contact me. References
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AuthorIn 2016, my family and I moved from the New York City area to small town Wisconsin. Our move, this website and blog (and our previous Etsy store) is the result of our desire over the past several years to simplify our lives, increase our quality of life, reconnect with nature, and enjoy a more self-sufficient life. I grew up as a country kid in central Pennsylvania working on my grandfather's fruit farm and as a corn "de-tassler" at a local seed farm. My background is in biology where my love of nature originated. I am a former research scientist and professor and have now transitioned to a part-time stay-at-home mom, self-employed tutor, and small business owner. Thank you for taking the time to check out my site. Archives
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